gomphothere

gomphothere, any member of a line of extinct elephants that formed the most numerous group of the order Proboscidea and lived from perhaps as early as the end of the Oligocene Epoch (33.9 million to 23 million years ago) to the late Pleistocene (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago) and early Holocene (11,700 years ago to the present) epochs.

Gomphotheres inhabited grasslands, forests, and marshes, with some species evolving highly specialized teeth for grazing and browsing in each environment. Similar to modern elephants, gomphotheres had a trunk, or proboscis, which developed from the nose and upper lip. Some species had elephant-sized trunks, whereas others had shorter, tapirlike snouts. Gomphotheres also possessed tusks (which were modified second incisors extending downward from the upper jaw), and most species also had a second set of two tusks that extended upward from the lower jaw.

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Tusks and teeth

As a group, gomphotheres had higher crowned teeth (that is, longer teeth that extended far below the gumline) than their Paleocene and Eocene predecessors. These teeth, which were continually ground down by chewing, allowed the animal to consume a coarse, abrasive diet of vegetation. The marsh-dwelling gomphotheres, such as Amebelodon and Platybelodon, had shovel-like tusks that extended from a protruding lower jaw and a set of short upper tusks. These flattened teeth appear to have been used to scoop up soft aquatic vegetation and to dig up roots. The wear patterns on the tusks observed in one study, however, suggested that at least some members of Platybelodon consumed tree bark and leaves in terrestrial habitats. These animals are sometimes referred to as “shovel tuskers.” Other gomphotheres, such as Gnathabelodon, had similar ecological specializations, but, instead of lower tusks, the margin of the lower jaw was elongated, forming a scoop.

The jaws of gomphotheres are thought to have been similar to those of modern elephants, in that they were too small to accommodate their massive molar teeth. As a result, gomphotheres developed a “conveyor-belt” system of tooth replacement, in which small teeth that formed early in life were replaced from the rear by larger teeth. The molars were composed of platelike sections of enamel, dentine, and cement stacked from front to back. The plates created a series of knobby ridges that ran across each tooth from tongue to cheek, as in modern elephants. However, the plates of gomphotheres were less numerous than those of living elephants and tended to have rounded cusps on their surfaces rather than the even ridges found in modern elephants. Gomphotheres are separated into two informal groups based on the structure of their molar teeth. The trilophodont gomphotheres had three plates in the molar teeth, and the tetralophodonts possessed an additional plate, for a total of four. The latter group was probably more closely related to true elephants.

Many gomphotheres chewed by moving their jaws from side to side, which allowed the animals to grind vegetation between the cusped plates. Although most gomphotheres probably had a mixed diet of many different kinds of vegetation, their plated teeth may have been specially adapted for feeding on the grasses that became widespread in the world’s ecosystems during the Miocene Epoch (23 million to 5.3 million years ago).

Evolution and distribution

The earliest uncontested gomphothere fossils date to the Miocene Epoch, but some paleontologists argue that fossils from Eritrea and Ethiopia discovered in the early 21st century push the origin of the group back to the late Oligocene Epoch. Gomphotheres spread to all continents except Antarctica and Australia. For most of their history, they lived only in Africa, Eurasia, and North America, but they reached South America in the early Pleistocene, shortly after a complete land connection was established across the Isthmus of Panama. It is thought that gomphotheres may have diverged from the evolutionary lineage of mammoths (Mammuthus) and modern elephants sometime after the emergence of the mastodon (Mastodon, or Mammut). However, it is possible that elephants and mammoths may be the direct descendants of gomphotheres.

Gomphothere diversity increased through the end of the Miocene, after which it declined as the diversity of true elephants increased. This trade-off between the groups coincided with cooling global temperatures and changes in Earth’s vegetation and ecosystems. Nevertheless, a few gomphothere clades persisted until after the last glacial maximum, which occurred some 26,500 to 19,000 years ago. In addition, gomphothere remains have been found in association with early human settlements, such as those dated to approximately 12,000 years ago at the El Fin del Mundo site in Mexico and 13,000 years ago at the Monte Verde site in Chile. The demise of the last remaining gomphotheres may have been part of the megafaunal extinctions of the late Quaternary Period (2.6 million years ago to the present), a series of large-mammal die-offs that accompanied the worldwide retreat of the Pleistocene ice sheets.