Alexander III

Alexander III (born c. 1105, Siena, Tuscany—died Aug. 30, 1181, Rome) was the pope from 1159 to 1181, a vigorous exponent of papal authority, which he defended against challenges by the Holy Roman emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Henry II of England.

Life

After studies in theology and law, Bandinelli became professor of law at Bologna and emerged as an important legal scholar and theologian. He wrote a commentary on the Decretum Gratiani and a book of Sentences, or theological opinions. He rose rapidly in the church during the pontificate of Pope Eugenius III and, during the reign of Pope Adrian IV, served as chief papal negotiator with Emperor Frederick Barbarossa.

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In the complex politics of the 12th century, Bandinelli emerged as a man of keen judgment and shrewd understanding. His intellect was subtle and his instincts diplomatic. He belonged to that group of cardinals in the Roman Curia who feared the growing strength of the Holy Roman Empire in Italy and inclined toward the Norman kingdom of Sicily as a means of redressing the balance of power. He participated in the drawing up of the Concordat of Benevento (1156) between the papacy and King William I of Sicily. He revealed his fear of the empire still further in the following year at Besançon (1157), where he referred to the empire as a “benefice” of the papacy. The term aroused a storm of controversy with the imperial chancellor Rainald of Dassel, who argued that the term implied that the empire was a fief of the church and thus was an insult to the Emperor. Bandinelli and the Pope maintained that it meant only “benefit,” but they could hardly have been unaware of the ambiguity of the term. Most likely, they intended its use as a warning to Frederick Barbarossa.

The papal election of 1159, in which the majority of the cardinals chose Bandinelli as pope under the name Alexander III, witnessed a strong effort on the part of Frederick to secure the election of a candidate favourable to his policies. A minority of the cardinals chose Cardinal Octavian (who took the name Victor IV), thus beginning a line of antipopes. Alexander, faced by strong imperial opposition in Italy, fled to France in April 1162 where he remained until 1165. This move prevented a total victory by the Emperor and enabled Alexander to build support in France and England, where he gained the recognition of kings Louis VII and Henry II. During this period Alexander also continued to hold the loyalty of most of the clergy in Italy, especially in the south, and many in Germany. He continued to press forward the program of church reform begun in the previous century under the leadership of Pope Gregory VII. He supported Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, in his dispute with King Henry II of England on the issue of the legal status of the clergy, despite the risk that he would lose much needed royal support. And he condemned certain propositions of Henry’s Constitutions of Clarendon. If Alexander’s efforts on Becket’s behalf were cautious, he did not compromise the principles on which the Archbishop’s case was based. After the murder of Becket, Alexander found Henry easier to deal with and was able to reach some agreement.

Papal relations with the empire in the 12th century revolved around the problems, both theoretical and practical, created by two autonomous powers—one spiritual, the other temporal—vying for authority in the lives of men. The church claimed primary responsibility over moral decisions; secular authorities were attempting to carve out for themselves a sphere of competence over political matters. There was no clear-cut distinction between the two areas, though constant efforts were being made to define them. The important fact is that during the 11th and early 12th centuries medieval society had become increasingly a dualistic society, recognizing two sources of authority and attempting to reconcile them. Alexander found himself playing a large role in the political arena in defense of what he regarded as the legitimate authority of the church. The conflict with Frederick Barbarossa, which consumed most of his efforts in the 1160s and 1170s, was perceived by him as a defense of the papacy, on which the liberty of the church rested.

Following the return of Alexander III to Rome in 1165, which was the result of a more favourable political climate in Italy caused by the temporary absence of Frederick Barbarossa, the conflict entered its critical period. In 1166, Frederick returned to Italy and forced the Pope into exile once more. He retreated to Benevento in 1167, remaining there for a decade. In Rome, where he received the imperial crown from his current antipope, Paschal III. Alexander now turned to the communes of northern Italy for support, finding in many of them a deep concern over the protection of their independence from the empire, a concern that united them with his cause. The result was the formation of the Lombard League, which provided the Pope with the support essential to carry on his conflict with Barbarossa.

Alexander was unwilling, however, to take extreme measures against the Emperor, whom he saw as the legitimate secular leader of Christendom. He rejected the notion proposed by the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus of a reunification of East and West under Byzantine rule and, instead, placed greater reliance on the Normans of southern Italy and the Lombard cities. It was this policy that was ultimately to prevail and to lay the foundation for the policies followed by the papal Curia in the 13th century. Frederick found himself increasingly isolated in Italy and at odds with powerful elements in Germany. His decisive defeat by the Lombards at Legnano (1176) paved the way for the Peace of Venice (1177), which closed this phase of the struggle.

Legacy

In his rule of the church, Alexander stood in the reform tradition and at the beginning of a line of lawyer-popes that would culminate in Innocent III. His concern for education was typical of his age, which witnessed the early development of the universities, in which he played a role both as teacher and later as pope (by ordering that the license to teach should be conferred on worthy candidates without charge). He presided over important synods at Beauvais (1160) and Tours (1163), as well as over the third Lateran Council (1179). He was among the first popes to express concern over the spread of the Catharist, or Albigensian, heresy in southern France.

With his death, in 1181, the church found itself in a more assured position than at his accession. His policies served as important signposts to his successors. Yet he had succeeded throughout his troubled reign in preserving the image of his moderation and in winning respect even from his enemies. He was not merely one of the abler medieval popes but also one who won greater prestige for his office by his conduct.