August Bebel

August Bebel (born February 22, 1840, Deutz, near Cologne, Germany—died August 13, 1913, Passugg, Switzerland) was a German Socialist, cofounder of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) of Germany and its most influential and popular leader for more than 40 years. He is one of the leading figures in the history of western European socialism.

Bebel was the son of a Prussian noncommissioned officer. Growing up in extreme poverty at Wetzlar, where he learned the turner’s craft, he began to travel as a journeyman through southern Germany and Austria and in the spring of 1860 settled in Leipzig, where he began his political career.

In 1861 Bebel joined the Leipzig Workers’ Educational Association, which, like many others of its kind, was formed through the initiative of members of the liberal bourgeoisie; in 1865 he became its chairman. Political and economic circumstances, however, gave the workers’ education movement an increasingly political orientation, which was to be significantly reflected in the development of Bebel’s own political views. Like the other young workers in the new associations, Bebel had not yet heard anything of The Communist Manifesto (1848) or of its authors, Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx.

If in 1863 Bebel believed that the working classes were not ready for the vote, he was already changing his mind when he began his friendship with Wilhelm Liebknecht, who came to Leipzig from Berlin in 1865. Liebknecht, older than Bebel and university-trained, became in many respects Bebel’s mentor, but the more open-minded Bebel always maintained his independence. The Seven Weeks’ War (1866) between Austria and Prussia divided German opinion between the advocates of a Kleindeutschland (Small Germany) and those of a Grossdeutschland (Large Germany), advocated by the Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck; it also drove the Saxon workers’ associations into an alliance with the radical anti-Prussian democrats, for Bebel and Liebknecht, the workers’ leaders, were implacable opponents of Bismarck. The Sächsische Volkspartei (Saxon People’s Party) was thus brought into being, and in 1867 Bebel entered the constituent Reichstag of the North German confederation as a member for this party. Eventually, this and other like-minded parties united in 1869 in the Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei (Social Democratic Labour Party) of Germany.

As a member of the North German Reichstag, in 1867 Bebel had protested against the Bismarckian “greater Prussia,” believing that it meant “turning Germany into one great barracks.” In parliament he continued this protest both before and after the founding of the German Empire. He and Liebknecht were the only voices to speak against the war loan voted in the Reichstag on July 21, 1870; as a result, they were brought to trial on a charge of high treason at Leipzig in March 1872. Sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, Bebel recovered from tuberculosis during this period of enforced idleness. He also was able to give himself a systematic education.

Beginning with an earlier sentence in 1869, Bebel spent a total of nearly five years in prison within less than 20 years, though he never faced any graver charge than that of “spreading doctrines dangerous to the state,” “lese majesty,” “libel of Bismarck,” or “libel of the Bundesrat.” These sentences were a serious threat to his livelihood. As the party itself could afford only the most essential expenditure and as a member of the Reichstag he received no allowances, Bebel continued to rely on his income as a craftsman. He had established himself in Leipzig as a master turner and had married the daughter of a railway worker in 1864. Not until the end of the 1880s was he able to live by his writing.

As a writer Bebel had most success with Die Frau und der Sozialismus (1883; Woman and Socialism), which went through many editions and translations. This book was the most powerful piece of SPD propaganda for decades. Above all, by its combination of science and prophecy, it served as a blueprint for German social democracy in the conditions produced by Bismarck’s Anti-Socialist Law (1878–90). Bebel himself never doubted that this period of repression under the emergency laws was anything more than an episode, declaring to his opponents in the Reichstag: “Your lances will be shattered in this struggle like glass on granite.” His unshakable confidence gave his colleagues the courage to stand firmly together, but he opposed all tendencies toward retaliation by force, since terrorism or attempts at subversion might have endangered the very existence of the party.

These tactics were proved right when the emergency laws were allowed to lapse and when, in the elections of 1890, the SPD received nearly 20 percent of the vote. Bebel’s position at the head of the party was now uncontested, and in the Reichstag he was the most prominent opponent of the government. Within the party itself he opposed all the “opportunist” tendencies, which had come out into the open since the ending of the anti-Socialist laws. According to these, features of the existing social and political structure might be developed gradually until social democracy was attained. At the Erfurt congress of 1891 he reproached the leader of the Bavarian SPD, Georg von Vollmar, with belying the “inspiration” of social democracy, without which “a party such as ours cannot exist.”

The struggle against open reformism and the theoretical revisionism advocated by Eduard Bernstein at the end of the 1890s reached its climax at the Dresden congress of 1903. Just as he condemned all deviations from the party’s official radical creed, so too was Bebel unwilling to yield to left-wing pressure to indulge in extraparliamentary experiments and thus perhaps to bring repression of the party again. His stand was justified, for in election after election the party gained new adherents, and Bebel lived to see the day when, in 1912, the SPD became, with 110 seats, the strongest group in the Reichstag.

Bebel, as no other, embodied the tradition of the German SPD. Already in 1882 Engels had described him as “a unique manifestation of the German, indeed of the European working class.” A member of the Reichstag from 1867 almost continuously until his death, he achieved his most celebrated triumphs as a parliamentarian. Even his opponents could not withhold their respect in the face of his passionate honesty. A shrewd contemporary, Hellmut von Gerlach, suggested that in politics Bebel lived from hand to mouth: “His political aims were for the most distant future or for the immediate present”; he did not concern himself with what might lie between. This is an accurate description of Bebel’s aims; for him and for the leading body of social democratic thought he represented, political activity essentially consisted in promoting as effectively as possible the politico-social interests of the working classes. His contradictory combination of futuristic revolutionary sentiment and a social policy rooted in the present reflects the equivocal position of his party under the conditions of the new German Empire. This explains to a great extent both the strength of Bebel’s position within the party and the political passivity of German social democracy, already noticeable before his death and fully revealed when, on the fall of the empire, the party had to face its first great political test.