Cixi

Cixi (born November 29, 1835, Beijing, China—died November 15, 1908, Beijing) consort of the Xianfeng emperor (reigned 1850–61), mother of the Tongzhi emperor (reigned 1861–75), adoptive mother of the Guangxu emperor (reigned 1875–1908), and a towering presence over the Chinese empire for almost half a century. By maintaining authority over the Manchu imperial house (Qing dynasty, 1644–1911/12), she became one of the most powerful women in the history of China.

Cixi was one of the Xianfeng emperor’s low-ranking concubines, but in 1856 she bore his only son. On Xianfeng’s death, the six-year-old boy became the Tongzhi emperor, and state business was put in the hands of a regency council of eight elder officials. A few months later, after Cixi and Xianfeng’s former senior consort, Ci’an, orchestrated a coup with Gong Qinwang (Prince Gong), the former emperor’s brother, the regency was transferred to Cixi and Ci’an. Gong became the prince counsellor.

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Under this triumviral rule, the government entered a temporary period of revitalization. The great Taiping Rebellion (1850–64), which had devastated South China, was quelled, as was the Nian Rebellion (1853–68) in the northern provinces. Schools were created for the study of foreign languages, a modern customs service was instituted, Western-style arsenals were constructed, and the first Chinese foreign service office was installed. Internally, an effort was made to end governmental corruption and to recruit men of talent.

Although the regency was terminated in 1873 after the Tongzhi emperor attained maturity, Cixi’s involvement in state affairs continued. Soon after Tongzhi’s death in 1875, Cixi arranged to adopt her three-year-old nephew, Zaitian, and have him named the new heir; he became the Guangxu emperor. The two empress dowagers continued to act as regents, but, after Ci’an’s sudden death in 1881, Cixi became the sole holder of the office. Three years later she dismissed Prince Gong.

In 1889, as the young Guangxu emperor formally assumed power, Cixi nominally relinquished control over the government to retire to the magnificent summer palace she had rebuilt northwest of Beijing. However, in 1898, a few years after the shocking defeat of the Chinese forces in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), the Guangxu emperor, under the influence of a group of reformers, put through a number of radical proposals designed to renovate and modernize the Chinese government and to eliminate corruption. (See Hundred Days of Reform.) Conservative officials, who again used the military to institute a coup, collected around Cixi. The new reforms were reversed, and Cixi resumed the regency. Most historians believe that China’s last chance for peaceful change thus ended.

The following year Cixi began to back those officials who were encouraging the anti-foreign Boxer rebels. In 1900 the Boxer Rebellion reached its peak; some 100 foreigners were killed, and the foreign legations in Beijing were surrounded. However, a coalition of foreign troops soon captured the capital, and Cixi was forced to flee the city and accept humiliating peace terms. Returning to Beijing in 1902, she finally began to implement many of the innovations that had been reversed in 1898, although the Guangxu emperor no longer participated in the government. Upon her death in 1908, death rites were observed for a year, after which she was laid to rest in the Eastern Qing tombs northwest of Beijing.

The day before Cixi died, Guangxu’s death was announced. Since then it was generally believed that the emperor had been poisoned, but that fact was not substantiated until 2008 when a report was issued by Chinese researchers and police officials confirming that the emperor had been deliberately poisoned with arsenic. Although the report did not address who may have ordered his death—and there never has been any hard evidence of culpability—suspicion long has pointed toward the Empress Dowager.