Cleisthenes of Athens
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Cleisthenes of Athens (born c. 570 bce—died c. 508) was a statesman regarded as the founder of Athenian democracy, serving as chief archon (highest magistrate) of Athens (525–524). Cleisthenes successfully allied himself with the popular Assembly against the nobles (508) and imposed democratic reform. Perhaps his most important innovation was the basing of individual political responsibility on citizenship of a place rather than on membership in a clan.
Cleisthenes belonged to the Alcmaeonid family, which had played a leading part in Athenian public life since the early Archaic period, and was the son of Megacles. At the time of Cleisthenes’ birth the family was still affected by a public curse incurred by his great-grandfather, also named Megacles. The latter had been chief archon when the Athenian noble Cylon had made an unsuccessful bid to seize the Acropolis and make himself tyrant (c. 632). Some of Cylon’s followers had taken refuge at an altar and did not abandon their sanctuary until they had been promised that their lives would be spared. They were, however, put to death, and Megacles was held responsible. On the advice of Apollo’s oracle at Delphi, a curse was pronounced on the Alcmaeonids, who went into exile, but they were back in Athens when the lawgiver Solon was called on to avert civil war in 594. The Alcmaeonids were strong supporters of Solon, and Megacles’ son Alcmaeon led an Athenian contingent that fought with Thessaly and the powerful tyrant of Sicyon (also named Cleisthenes), in a so-called Sacred War for the protection of Delphi. It is not surprising that, when the tyrant of Sicyon was looking for a husband for his daughter Agariste (c. 574), he should have chosen Megacles, son of Alcmaeon. The first son of the marriage was named Cleisthenes after his mother’s father.
In the period following Solon’s reforms, Attica was unsettled. The old nobility thought that Solon had gone too far and were anxious to reverse the trend; the common people thought that he had not gone far enough. The Alcmaeonids, whom the curse had alienated from the nobility, championed a middle way based on Solon’s reforms; but both these parties were outmaneuvered by Peisistratus, a noble with a good military reputation who appealed to the poorer classes and, with their support, seized power in 560. After an unsuccessful attempt to share power with the tyrant, the Alcmaeonids joined the opposition; but, when Peisistratus, having built up his resources during a 10-year exile, defeated his enemies, the Alcmaeonids again had to leave Attica (546). Cleisthenes was then about 25 years old, and for nearly 20 years he could not return. Nothing more is heard of his father, who probably died before Peisistratus. The Alcmaeonids’ part in the Sacred War ensured the favour of Delphi; this support was further strengthened by the part played by the family in the rebuilding of Apollo’s temple, which had burned down in about 548.
The fragment of an archon list found in the excavation of the Athenian Agora has shown that Cleisthenes was chief archon in 525–524. It is believed that when Peisistratus died in 527, his son and successor, Hippias, tried to win back those nobles who had been most hostile to the tyranny. But the reconciliation did not last. In 512, at a time when Hippias, frightened by the murder of his brother in 514, had become increasingly repressive, the Alcmaeonids tried unsuccessfully with other nobles to fight their way back. They were more successful when they enlisted the help of Delphi. The Spartans were repeatedly urged by Delphi to set Athens free, and it was finally a Spartan army that forced Hippias and his family to leave Attica.
In the struggle for power that followed the fall of the tyranny, Cleisthenes failed to impose his leadership, and in 508 Isagoras, the leader of the more reactionary nobles, was elected chief archon. It was at this point, according to later tradition, that Cleisthenes took the people into partnership and transformed the situation. Before the year 508–507 was over, the main principles of a complete reform of the system of government had been approved by the popular Assembly, a relative of the Alcmaeonids had been elected chief archon for the following year, Isagoras had left Athens to invoke Spartan intervention, and Sparta had declared for Isagoras. The Spartan king demanded the expulsion of “those under the curse,” and Cleisthenes and his relatives were again exiles. The Spartans had no wish to see a democratic Athens, but they misjudged the mood of the people. The attempt to impose Isagoras as the leader of a narrow oligarchy was strongly resisted, and the Spartans had to withdraw. The Athenians now recalled the exiles and carried out the decision that the Assembly had taken in 508.
Cleisthenes had seen that though the tyranny had improved the economic condition of the common people and had, temporarily at least, broken the political power of the noble houses, most of the old families were still looking to the past rather than the future, the full promise of the Solonian reforms could not be realized unless the principle of hereditary privilege was attacked at the roots. He therefore persuaded the people to change the basis of political organization from the family, clan, and phratry (kinship group) to the locality. Public rights and duties should henceforward depend on membership of a deme, or township, which kept its own register of citizens and elected its own officials. The citizen would no longer be known only by his father’s name but also or alone by the name of his deme. Ten new local tribes were formed to take the place of the four Ionic blood tribes, and, to make faction building more difficult, Attica was divided into three areas—the city itself and its suburbs, the coastal area, and the inland area; and townships from each of the three areas were included in each tribe, 10 counties, trittyes, being formed in each area for this purpose. Within that grouping steps were probably taken to diminish the local influence of some of the main priestly families. The mixed local tribe became the basis of representation in public office, and the Solonian Council of Four Hundred was increased to 500 (50 from each tribe, with members selected from demes according to their numbers; see Council of Five Hundred). Isonomia, the principle of equality of rights for all, was one of the proudest boasts of the reformers, and there is no doubt that Cleisthenes’ work led to a much wider and more active participation by all persons in public life.