John Muir

John Muir (born April 21, 1838, Dunbar, East Lothian, Scotland—died December 24, 1914, Los Angeles, California, U.S.) was a Scottish-born American naturalist, writer, and advocate of U.S. forest conservation, who was largely responsible for the establishment of Sequoia National Park and Yosemite National Park, which are located in California. He and other conservationists founded the Sierra Club in 1892.

Early life and travels

Muir emigrated from Scotland with his family to a farm near Portage, Wisconsin, in 1849. In 1860 he traveled the short distance south to Madison, where he subsequently attended the University of Wisconsin until 1863. After leaving Madison, Muir worked on mechanical inventions, but in 1867, when an industrial accident nearly cost him an eye, he abandoned that career and devoted himself to nature. He walked from the Midwest to the Gulf of Mexico, keeping a journal, A Thousand-Mile Walk to the Gulf (published posthumously in 1916), as he went. In 1868 he went to the Yosemite Valley in California. From there he took many trips into Nevada, Utah, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska, inspired by his interest in glaciers and forests. In a series of articles published in 1874–75 in the magazine Overland Monthly, Muir attributed the spectacular Yosemite formations to glacial erosion; he was the first to present this theory, which is now generally accepted.

Role in conservation and preservation

As early as 1876, Muir urged the federal government to adopt a forest conservation policy. He became a central figure in the debate over land use, advocating on behalf of land preservation primarily through articles published in popular periodicals, such as Atlantic Monthly, The Century Magazine, and Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (now Harper’s Magazine). Although initially finding common ground in the ideas of forest protection put forth by Gifford Pinchot, a pioneer of U.S. forestry and conservation, Muir’s views ultimately diverged. Whereas Pinchot supported the sustainable use of resources within national forests, Muir believed that national parks and forests should be preserved in their entirety, meaning that their resources should be rendered off-limits to industrial interests. Although Sequoia and Yosemite national parks were established in 1890, representing a victory for environmental protection, the debate between Pinchot’s utilitarian approach to forestry and Muir’s preservationist approach was far from over.

On May 28, 1892, Muir founded the Sierra Club, an organization devoted to protecting the environment. He served as its first president, a position he held until his death in 1914. The Sierra Club Bulletin, a publication for the organization’s members, provided a vital outlet for Muir, enabling him through his writing to raise awareness of environmental issues.

Early in 1897, U.S. President Grover Cleveland designated 13 national forests to be preserved from commercial exploitation. However, business interests induced Congress to postpone the effect of that measure. Muir’s writings ultimately proved influential in swinging public opinion as well as congressional opinion in favour of national forest reservations. Muir influenced the large-scale conservation program that was initiated by President Theodore Roosevelt, who in 1903 accompanied Muir on a camping trip to the Yosemite region. In 1908 the government established Muir Woods National Monument in Marin county, California, and in 1964 it designated his home in Martinez, California, as a national historic site. Muir’s work was also influential in the establishment of Mount Rainier National Park (1899) in Washington state and Grand Canyon National Park (1919) in Arizona.

Lasting contributions

Muir’s enduring contributions to the conservation and preservation of America’s wilderness have been far-reaching. His conviction that wilderness areas should be federally protected as national parks has given generations of U.S. citizens and tourists an opportunity to appreciate America’s landscapes as they exist in the absence of human industrial influence. Muir’s writings continue to serve as sources of inspiration for naturalists and conservationists in the United States and worldwide. The Mountains of California (1894), Our National Parks (1901), and The Yosemite (1912), as well as books published posthumously, including Travels in Alaska (1915), A Thousand-Mile Walk (1916), and The Cruise of the Corwin: Journal of the Arctic Expedition of 1881 in Search of De Long and the Jeannette (1917), remain important works in the body of literature on America’s natural history.

Despite his legacy as a towering figure in American environmental conservation, it must be noted that Muir’s deeply harmful attitudes toward Black and Indigenous peoples have also had a lasting impact on the Sierra Club and the broader conservation movement. Drawing on racist stereotypes, Muir maligned native peoples and African Americans as “dirty and lazy.” Instead of showing empathy for their plight at the hands of white settlers or recognition of their vital stewardship and ownership of the lands he so loved, he felt that the continued presence of Native Americans in the Sierra Nevadas was a blight. His actions and writings contributed to an American land ethic that has long romanticized and idealized the heroic white man alone and at peace in the wilderness, leaving little room for Indigenous relationships with their ancestral lands or for the participation of other minorities in conservation efforts. Muir was also close friends with a number of other prominent scientists and Sierra Club members, including Henry Fairfield Osborn and David Starr Jordan, who were well known for their white supremacy. The organization was originally founded in such a way that membership could only be granted through sponsorship from existing members, which allowed for the effective screening of applicants of color.