Lewis Henry Morgan

Lewis Henry Morgan (born November 21, 1818, near Aurora, New York, U.S.—died December 17, 1881, Rochester, New York) was an American ethnologist and a principal founder of scientific anthropology, known especially for establishing the study of kinship systems and for his comprehensive theory of social evolution.

An attorney by profession, Morgan practiced law at Rochester (1844–62) and served in the New York State Assembly (1861–68) and Senate (1868–69). In the early 1840s he developed a deep interest in Native Americans and over his lifetime championed their struggles against colonialism and oppression. While making an exhaustive survey of the history, social organization, and material culture of the Iroquois nation, he was adopted by the Seneca tribe (1846), the focus of his particular interest. Results of his observations appeared in The League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois (1851).

About 1856 Morgan’s interest turned to the Seneca way of designating relatives, which differed markedly from Anglo-American convention. Upon discovering virtually identical designations among the Ojibwa of northern Michigan, he conjectured that if the system were also to be found in Asia, the Asiatic origin of the American Indians might be shown. He thereupon embarked on a series of far-flung investigations of the kinship terms used by the people of many other cultures. He gathered his results in his influential pioneer elaboration of kinship, Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (1871). This work inaugurated the modern anthropological study of kinship systems as the basic organizing principle in most preindustrial societies.

Morgan’s kinship study led him to develop his theory of cultural evolution, which was set forth in Ancient Society, or Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilization (1877). This was among the first major scientific accounts of the origin and evolution of civilization. Morgan posited that advances in social organization arose primarily from changes in food production. Society had progressed from a hunting-and-gathering stage (which he denoted by the term “savagery”) to a stage of settled agriculture (“barbarism”) and then on to an urban society possessing a more advanced agriculture (“civilization”). He illustrated these developmental stages with examples drawn from various cultures. Morgan’s ideas about the development of technology over time have come to be regarded as generally correct in their fundamental aspects. His theory that human social life advanced from an initial stage of promiscuity through various forms of family life that culminated in monogamy has long been held obsolete, however.

Morgan’s emphasis on the importance of technological change and other purely material factors in cultural and social evolution attracted the attention of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. That Ancient Society came to be regarded by Marxists as a classic was largely the result of the importance that Marx and Engels attached to it, because Morgan’s own social allegiance was to the industrial and commercial middle class and its achievements. For a number of years Morgan remained the dean of American anthropology. Among his other works are The Indian Journals, 1859–1862 (1959) and, based on his extensive observations of non-human mammals, The American Beaver and His Works (1868).