Manuel I

Manuel I (born May 31, 1469, Alcochete, Port.—died December 1521, Lisbon) was the king of Portugal from 1495 to 1521, whose reign was characterized by religious troubles (all Moors and Jews refusing baptism were expelled), by a policy of clever neutrality in the face of quarrels between France and Spain, and by the continuation of overseas expansion, notably to India and Brazil.

Manuel was fortunate to have reigned at all; he was the ninth child of Dom Fernando, who was the younger brother of Afonso V. Manuel’s father died a year after Manuel was born. King Afonso had one of Manuel’s sisters married to his heir, John II, and another to the powerful Duke of Bragança. On his accession John II had Bragança executed on a charge of treason and later murdered Manuel’s only surviving brother on suspicion of conspiracy. But John extended his protection to the boy Manuel, making him Duke of Beja. On the death of his own legitimate son in 1491, John recognized Manuel as his heir. Although he later contemplated legitimizing his remaining son, Jorge, he finally left the crown to Manuel.

Britannica Quiz

Kings and Emperors (Part III) Quiz

As king (from 1495), Manuel at once pardoned the banished Braganças and restored their confiscated estates. But the monarchy soon acquired vast new wealth as Vasco da Gama’s voyage around Africa opened Portuguese trade with the East. In March 1500 Manuel sent Pedro Álvares Cabral with 13 ships to establish trade relations with the Indian princes. Cabral, sailing in the western Atlantic, sighted Brazil, sent back a ship to report the discovery, and continued around the Cape of Good Hope to India where he set up trading posts (feitorias) at Calicut, Cochin, and Cannanore, all on the Malabar coast of southwestern India. Although half his ships were lost, the venture was profitable. In 1502 da Gama took 20 ships and brought back gold as tribute from East Africa. Manuel was already wealthy by 1503. Meanwhile, João Fernandes Lavrador reached what was probably Labrador in 1499, and Gaspar Côrte-Real discovered Newfoundland in 1500. The Brazilian coast was explored, though trade was virtually confined to the dyewood (brazilwood [Caesalpinia echinata], called pau-brasil in Portuguese) after which Brazil is named.

Manuel’s claims to these newly discovered lands were confirmed by the papacy and recognized by the Spanish, with whom Manuel maintained close relations. His three queens were Spanish. The first was Isabella, eldest daughter of cosovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella and widow of John II’s heir. As a condition of the marriage, Manuel was to expel the Jews, many thousands of whom had been admitted by John II on their expulsion from Spain in 1492. Thus in December 1496 Manuel ordered Jews and free Muslims to quit Portugal within 10 months. On their assembly in Lisbon, every attempt was made to force their conversion. Some were allowed to leave, but the rest were “converted” under the promise that no inquiry should be made into their beliefs for 20 years.

Manuel and Isabella became heirs to the Spanish crowns on her brother’s death. They visited Toledo and Saragossa to receive oaths of allegiance in 1498, but the possibility of the union of the crowns ended when Isabella died in the same year while giving birth to their son Miguel, who died in infancy. In October Manuel married Isabella’s younger sister Maria, by whom he had nine children.

The consolidation of Portuguese influence in the East can be dated from the foundation of the fortress at Cochin in 1503 and its successful defense by Duarte Pacheco Pereira (1504). Manuel sent Dom Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505. Afonso de Albuquerque, who succeeded Almeida as governor, conquered Goa in 1510 and Malacca on the Malay Peninsula in 1511, bringing the distribution of oriental spices under Portuguese control. By 1513 the Portuguese had reached China.

The crusading aspect of the expansion reached its apogee with Albuquerque, who nourished grandiose schemes for blockading the Red Sea and capturing Mecca. Duarte Galvão’s attempts to persuade other European courts to join a crusade met with little response. The arrival of an Abyssinian envoy at Manuel’s court in 1514 suggested an alliance with the Christian negus (king) of that country, and Manuel appointed Galvão ambassador to Abyssinia. But the mission was delayed by Galvão’s death, and the crusading vision faded with the death of Albuquerque off Goa (December 1515). Manuel was no warrior: it was the Duke of Bragança who conquered Azamor in Morocco (1513).

The Indian traffic added enormously to the size and splendour of Manuel’s court. John II had cowed the ambitious nobles. Manuel converted them into a palace aristocracy, paying pensions to some 5,000 persons. Despite the brilliance of his age, Manuel appears in somewhat low relief. Most of the heroes of the day had made their mark under John II. Manuel was industrious, temperate, fond of music and display, and extravagant. He resided chiefly at Lisbon, where he built the waterside palace (near the present-day Terreiro do Paço), and at Sintra. The playwright-goldsmith Gil Vicente wrote for the court, which became a centre of minor poetry and painting. Manuel founded the palace-monastery of the Jerónimos at Belém and built the Tower of Belém; the architecture typical of the reign has been called “Manueline” only since the 19th century.

Under Manuel the public administration was increasingly centralized. A committee of royal officials revised town charters granted by previous rulers, standardized local privileges, and rationalized taxes. In 1515 Manuel ordered his council to revise the code of laws: his Ordenações Manuelinas were issued in 1512 and revised in 1521. The judiciary was enlarged, and royal corregedores were appointed to all districts. This carried forward the process of neo-Roman absolutism and assured the rise of the judicial class. Manuel also excepted the church and the military orders of knighthood from certain obligations. He severely punished those responsible for the massacre of Jews in 1506. Manuel married Eleanor of Austria, sister of the emperor Charles V, in 1518, and had one daughter by this marriage. He died at Lisbon in 1521 and was buried in the Jerónimos monastery.