Dayton Accords

Dayton Accords, peace agreement reached on Nov. 21, 1995, by the presidents of Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia, ending the war in Bosnia and outlining a General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It preserved Bosnia as a single state made up of two parts, the Bosniak-Croat federation and the Bosnian Serb Republic, with Sarajevo remaining as the undivided capital city.

(Read Britannica’s biography of this author, President Bill Clinton.)

The agreement is known as the Dayton Accords because the negotiations took place at the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base outside Dayton, Ohio. The process was led by Richard Holbrooke, who was the chief U.S. peace negotiator, and Secretary of State Warren Christopher.

The outbreak of war

War broke out in the former Yugoslavia in the early 1990s following the dissolution of the Yugoslav federation, comprising Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. After Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared their independence from Yugoslavia, ethnic Serbs, who opposed the breakup of Serb-dominated Yugoslavia, launched armed struggles to carve out separate Serb-controlled territories in both areas. Around the same time, Croats and Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) also began fighting each other, largely over territory.

The Serb separatists were given military support by Slobodan Milošević, leader of the Republic of Serbia, as they systematically attacked other ethnic communities and subjected civilians to murder, rape, and imprisonment in camps reminiscent of the concentration camps used by the Nazis during the Holocaust.

The war in Croatia lasted until January 1992, when an unconditional cease-fire established an uneasy peace between the Croatian government and ethnic Serbs. The war between Croats and Bosniaks halted with the signing of the Washington agreement in March 1994, establishing an uncomfortable alliance known as the Bosniak-Croat federation. Meanwhile, fighting between Croat-Bosniak forces and the Serbs continued, despite international efforts to establish a lasting cease-fire, including a no-fly zone, a fire-free zone around Sarajevo, and humanitarian operations. In February 1994, in NATO’s first-ever use of force, NATO fighters shot down four Serb aircraft that were violating the no-fly zone. Later, in May 1995, NATO conducted air strikes on the Serb stronghold of Pale.

In the summer of 1995, the tide began to turn against the Serbs, as Bosniak and Croat forces recaptured some of the Serb-held territory in Bosnia through a large-scale military operation code-named Operation Storm, the largest European land offensive since World War II. U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton (this author) had authorized a private company to use retired U.S. military personnel to improve and train the Croatian army. Croatian forces took Krajina with little resistance. It was the first defeat for the Serbs in four years, and it changed both the balance of power on the ground and the psychology of all the parties.

The road toward peace

In an effort to capitalize on the shift in momentum, President Clinton sent National Security Adviser Anthony Lake and Undersecretary of State Peter Tarnoff to Europe to present a framework for peace. The United States also made a key shift in policy to conduct air strikes against the Serbs if they continued to threaten the Bosnian safe areas or refused to negotiate a settlement.

In late August 1995, following an attack by Bosnian Serbs in Sarajevo, NATO conducted air strikes on Serb positions. On September 1 Holbrooke announced that all the parties would meet in Geneva for talks. When the Bosnian Serbs did not comply with all of NATO’s conditions, NATO air strikes resumed. On September 14, Holbrooke succeeded in getting an agreement signed by Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić, leaders of the Bosnian Serbs, to end the siege of Sarajevo, laying the framework for final peace talks set to begin in Dayton, Ohio.

On Nov. 1, 1995, the conference began. Bosnian President Alija Izetbegović, Serbian President Milošević, Croatian President Franjo Tudjman, and representatives from the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the European Union (EU) met at the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base on the outskirts of Dayton, Ohio, a site chosen to reduce the ability of participants to negotiate via the media rather than the bargaining table. The peace conference was led by Holbrooke and cochaired by EU Special Representative Carl Bildt and First Deputy Foreign Minister of Russia Igor Ivanov.

Twenty-one days later, the talks concluded and the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina was initialed by Izetbegović for the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Tudjman for the Republic of Croatia, and Milošević for the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

The Bosnian peace plan was hard-won, but it would bring an end to four bloody years that claimed more than 250,000 lives and caused more than two million people to flee their homes. The final agreement was a tribute to the skills of Holbrooke and his negotiating team; to Secretary of State Christopher, who at critical points was decisive in keeping the Bosnians on board and in closing the deal; to Anthony Lake, who helped to sell the peace initiative to the parties involved and who, with Holbrooke, pushed for the final talks to be held in the United States; to Deputy National Security Adviser Samuel Berger, who chaired the deputies’ committee meetings, which kept people in the national security operations of other nations informed of what was going on without allowing too much interference; and to UN Ambassador Madeleine Albright, who effectively advocated the United States’ strong position in the world body.

For the peace agreement to work, it had to be implemented. That required the support of other countries. Six days after the agreement was initialed, President Clinton took his case for U.S. involvement in Bosnia to the American people. Speaking from the Oval Office, Clinton said that U.S. diplomacy had produced the Dayton Accords and that U.S. troops had been requested to help the parties implement the peace plan. He said peace in the Balkans was in America’s interest and he assured the American people that, since 25 other nations had already agreed to participate in a force of 60,000, only a third of the troops would be Americans.

The General Framework Agreement, including 11 annexes, was signed formally in Paris on December 14 by the parties and by witnesses President Clinton, French President Jacques Chirac, British Prime Minister John Major, German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin. The agreement called for Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to agree to fully respect the sovereign equality of one another and to settle disputes by peaceful means. In addition, the parties agreed to fully respect human rights and the rights of refugees and displaced persons. Lastly, the parties agreed to cooperate fully with all entities, including those authorized by the United Nations Security Council, in implementing the peace settlement and investigating and prosecuting war crimes and other violations of international humanitarian law.

Peace has endured since the signing of the Dayton Accords. Annex 4 of the General Framework Agreement still stands as the constitution for Bosnia and Herzegovina and continues to be the basis for the present political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its structure of government. The agreement also laid the groundwork for NATO military action in Kosovo in 1999, which has since led to the province’s independence. Serb leader Milošević was arrested for war crimes and died in 2006 of natural causes during his trial.