Mexico
The Mexican reform of 1915 followed a revolution and dealt mainly with lands of Indian villages that had been illegally absorbed by neighbouring haciendas (plantations). Legally there was no serfdom; but the Indian wage workers, or peons, were reduced to virtual serfdom through indebtedness. Thus, the landlords were masters of the land and of the peons. The immediate aim of reform was to restore the land to its legal owners, settle the title, and use public land to reconstruct Indian villages. The motives were mainly to reduce poverty and inequality and to secure political stability, which was then in the balance. A decree of 1915 voided all land alienations that had taken place illegally since 1856 and provided for extracting land from haciendas to reestablish the collective Indian villages, or ejidos. The 1917 constitution reaffirmed those provisions but also guaranteed protection of private property, including haciendas. Nevertheless, a combination of loopholes, litigation, and reactionary forces slowed implementation, and effective reform came only after passage of the Agrarian Code of 1934 and the sympathetic efforts of Pres. Lázaro Cárdenas.
The reform restored many villages and freed the peons, but land concentration and poverty continued. In 1950, more than 31 percent of the private cropland was owned by fewer than 0.5 percent of the owners. Small-scale operation was retained or encouraged, a fact explaining the decline of output in the early years. More recently, efficiently run farms have been exempted from distribution.
The social and political impact was more positive. The peasants acquired more land and liberty, and control by landlords was reduced, although it was replaced by village restrictions. At least legally, farming became the basis of landholding. Some have seen in land reform the reason for Mexico’s political stability, although there have been sporadic peasant uprisings and other violent encounters.
Reforms since World War II
Recent decades have witnessed widespread, comprehensive reform programs, but the concept has undergone major changes. The eastern European countries and China originally followed the Soviet model, with different modifications in the individual countries. A few other countries have continued to follow that model, with major emphasis on “land to the tiller,” cooperation, collective ownership, large-scale operation, and mechanization, and with economic development as the common denominator. In capitalist-oriented reforms, private ownership, family farming, and dual tenures have remained basic objectives with the aim of promoting democracy, equality, stability, and development. Under the influence and with the guidance of the United Nations, nonsocialist reforms of the 1950s were equated with community development and emphasized institutional and rural self-help in addition to land redistribution. In the 1960s the emphasis shifted to agricultural productivity and economic development by means of large-scale operation, new technology, and cooperation. The 1970s witnessed the advent of “integrated rural development” as the focus of reform and as a way of combining productive activities with improvements in the social and physical infrastructure. The integrated approach, however, soon proved to be unmanageable, and the emphasis shifted to the “target” group as the focus of reform. The most recent conception of reform has been to satisfy “basic needs,” with or without land distribution, although no policymaker in the capitalist countries would openly question the idea of land redistribution or the creation of small family farms. These experiments with the concept of reform have been accompanied by attempts to broaden the concept to incorporate women as equal beneficiaries of reform in their own right. The results have been mixed.
Japan
The Japanese reform came immediately after World War II at the insistence of the Allied Occupation Army. The reform was designed to fit the uniquely high literacy rate and advanced industrial level of the country. Although the Meiji government had formally abolished feudalism and declared the land to be the property of the peasants, usurpation of land by the rich and by moneylenders had created classes of perpetual tenants and absentee landlords. In 1943, 66 percent of the land was operated by tenants against rent in kind that averaged 48 percent of the farmers’ product, while population pressure resulted in fragmentation of holdings. The social class structure was closely tied to tenure, the owners in each village being at the top of the structure. Conflict between landlords and peasants was widespread.
After the war, the crisis was revived by food shortages, the breakdown of the urban economy, and the return of absentee landlords to the land. The Occupation Army insisted on reform, presumably to democratize the society and rehabilitate the economy. The reform law of 1946 established a ceiling on individual holdings and provided for expropriation and resale of excess land to the tenants against long-term payments. The government compensated the landlords in cash and bonds redeemable in 30 years. Tenants were protected by contract, and rents were reduced to a maximum of 25 percent of the product. The redistributed land was made inalienable, though this restriction was relaxed four years later. The program also provided for marketing and credit cooperatives. An important supplementary measure was the Local Autonomy Law of 1947, which decentralized the power structure and put village affairs in the hands of the villagers.
Within two years tenancy declined by more than 80 percent. Rent control and land distribution helped to equalize incomes in the villages and rehabilitate the sociopolitical status of the peasants. Crop yields per unit of land increased, but despite improved techniques the output per worker declined. In general the reform seemed to realize the objectives of the reformers and the peasants, although smallness of scale, low per capita incomes, underemployment, and insufficient mechanization have persisted. Even black market rents developed. These problems were tolerable because their effects were mitigated by the upsurge of the urban economy and the ability of the Japanese farmer to supplement the family income from nonagricultural employment. Even so, the farmers continue to depend on government subsidy to stay in farming.
Egypt
The Egyptian reform of 1952 followed the revolution that overthrew the monarchy and brought young middle-class leaders to the helm. Though affecting only about 12 percent of the arable land, it was applied thoroughly and touched all aspects of rural life. Egypt had two main forms of tenure: private ownership and waqf, or land held in trust and dedicated to charitable or educational purposes. Waqf land was inalienable, but private land was subject to speculation and concentration. In 1950, 1 percent of the owners had more than 20 percent of the private land, and 7 percent had more than two-thirds. The operating unit was small, with 77 percent of all the holdings occupying less than one acre each. Tenancy was widespread and rents were exorbitant. The peasants were exploited by middlemen who sublet the land to tenants, mediated between them and the market, and extended credit at high rates of interest.
The revolutionary reformers aimed at abolishing feudalism, recruiting peasant support, promoting economic development, and bringing the villagers back into the stream of national life. The Agrarian Reform Law of 1952 put a ceiling on individual holdings at 200 faddāns (one faddān = 1.038 acres), later reduced to 100 faddāns, with special allowance for male children. The excess land was expropriated and distributed to the peasants in parcels not exceeding five faddāns. Compensation was given in bonds, while land recipients had to repay in annual installments. The new owners were obligated to join cooperatives for production, marketing, and credit. Tenancy conditions were also regulated, with contract replacing traditional terms; rent could not exceed 50 percent of the product, nor could a tenant hold more than 50 acres, to avoid subletting. An interesting feature of the reform was the special attention given to college graduates by allowing them up to 20-faddān parcels.
The reform was enforced quickly and had a great impact on the morale of the peasants. The economic effects, however, were minor since agriculture was intensive and land yield high. Producer cooperatives served only to offset the impact of distribution on the scale of operation. Some increases in yield have been claimed, but the evidence is still inconclusive. Furthermore, little capital was redirected into productive investment since the compensation bonds were not negotiable. Peasant savings remained limited, income increments being spent mostly on consumption. Finally, underemployment in agriculture has remained widespread. The defects of the agrarian structure continue to prevail, and relatively large ownerships exist, while certain groups in Egypt are calling for reversal of the reform.
The social and political effects, however, were far reaching. Redistribution and regulation of rent raised the incomes of small owners and tenants. Cooperatives replaced the middleman and captured his share for the farmer. The peasant gained social status and enjoyed a higher level of political participation, mostly in support of the revolutionary regime. These effects, however, can be easily exaggerated. The peasants became dependent on the cooperatives whether they liked them or not. Great differences in landholding continued to exist, and peasant incomes remained low. Black market rents appeared. The example of Egypt suggests that successful reform in densely populated countries requires an upsurge in the industrial sector to relieve population pressure and permit technical advance and higher productivity in agriculture.
Southeast Asia
The model of Japan’s reform has been attempted in Southeast Asia, especially in Taiwan, South Korea, and the former South Vietnam, all influenced by American experts and by the anticommunism of their respective governments. The objectives were to sustain the political order, raise living standards, and promote some degree of economic development. The reforms began with regulation of tenancy, restriction of rent, and the institution of written contract for leases, following which tenants were to be transformed into owners. Taiwan’s reform was implemented between 1949 and 1953, in three stages. First, rents, which had sometimes reached 70 percent of the product, were reduced to 37.5 percent. Next, tenant-farmed public land was sold to the tenants. Finally, tenant-farmed private land was bought by the government and resold to the tenants.
The Vietnamese reform was introduced in 1955. Rents were reduced to a maximum of 25 percent of the product. A ceiling of 247 acres (100 hectares) was put on individual holdings, however, and only the excess land was subject to redistribution in parcels of 7.4 to 12.4 acres (3 to 5 hectares) to the tenants. The collapse of the South Vietnamese regime and the unification of South and North Vietnam ended that reform and replaced it with the socialist model of North Vietnam.
The reform in Taiwan, as in South Vietnam prior to unification, was supplemented by other measures described as community development, such as adult education, credit facilities, improved technology, and other social services. Though land consolidation was attempted, the scale of operation was little affected. The main effect seems to have been the regulation of tenancy and the redistribution of rent incomes. An innovation of Taiwan’s reform was the partial compensation of landlords with industrial shares in public enterprises, which helped them and helped industry.
Taiwan’s reform has been hailed as a major success, in both economic and political terms. Some observers, however, are unwilling to reach such a conclusion until restrictions are removed and the peasants have a free choice of tenure and farm organization.
South Korea’s land reform (under the Land Reform Law of June 1949) roughly followed the Japanese model by removing tenancy, creating small ownerships, implementing the law thoroughly and promptly, and depending heavily on nonagricultural (basically industrial) employment to absorb labour and supplement rural income. Like the Japanese and Taiwanese reforms, Korea’s successful reform was generously supported by foreign aid.
The Philippines introduced a reform program in 1963, which aimed primarily at replacing share tenancy with lease contracts and eventually with ownership, and at revitalizing agriculture through extension services. By the mid-1980s the program had given titles to about 400,000 tenants and secure leases to another 600,000, but the economic viability of the new units has been uncertain because of their small scale and the lack of supplementary facilities. The main effects initially were seed improvement, greater use of fertilizers, and an increase in contractual tenancy. To combat the negative effects of small-scale farming, the Philippine government has resorted to what it calls the “compact farm,” which is a voluntary grouping of small farms to be operated under one management as one consolidated farm. The problem of surplus labour, however, remains to be solved.
Various other reforms have been introduced in Southeast Asia, but the only innovative program has been that of Malaysia. The program in Malaysia has been highly organized and development oriented. It tries to promote social and economic objectives by emphasizing the production of rubber and palm oil for export and gradually transforming the landless into hereditary tenants on newly reclaimed and settled plantations. A typical plantation covers 4,500 to 5,000 acres (1,800 to 2,000 hectares) of jungle land and absorbs about 400 families. The land is cleared and planted by contract, and a village is constructed, with all the necessary services, before the settlers arrive. Each house has a quarter of an acre for a household garden. Cropland is divided in blocks of 120 to 200 acres (48 to 80 hectares), to be worked by a team of 15 to 25 people until the plants have matured. Upon maturation, each settler receives a share by lottery and a lease title for 99 years. This tenure arrangement precludes alienation, subdivision, or subleasing; it thus protects the tenant farmer and sidesteps the Islamic laws of inheritance, which tend toward fragmentation of the land.
The settler is responsible for the cost of clearing and planting, but the government pays the administrative costs. The settler is guaranteed supplementary employment to earn subsistence income pending maturity of the plants, and cultivation is guided by experts. The rate of settlement is determined by the overall economic plan. It is clear that landholding has become tied to cultivation; fragmentation and diseconomies of scale have been avoided, and cultivation has become a rational economic operation. The Malaysian program has much in common with the cooperative settlements of Israel and the Gezira Scheme in Sudan.