Aleppo

Aleppo, principal city of northern Syria. It is situated in the northwestern part of the country, about 30 miles (50 km) south of the Turkish border. Aleppo is located at the crossroads of great commercial routes and lies some 60 miles (100 km) from both the Mediterranean Sea (west) and the Euphrates River (east). Pop. (2004) 2,132,100.

History

The exact age of Aleppo is unknown, although it is thought to be among the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities. The first settlers are believed to have built homes on the hill at the centre of the modern city, taking advantage of the area’s natural defensive advantages, fertile agricultural land, and proximity to a water source, the Quwayq River. However, the continuous occupation of the site to the present day has made the search for archaeological evidence of the site’s earliest history difficult.

The city’s Arabic name, Ḥalab, is of ancient Semitic origin. It is first mentioned in the archives of the ancient city of Ebla at the end of the 3rd millennium bce as the site of an important temple dedicated to the Near Eastern storm god Hadad. In the late 20th century archaeologists discovered the buried remains of this temple at the site of Aleppo’s medieval citadel, atop the hill at the city’s centre. The oldest parts of the temple date to the 3rd millennium bce, and the building was renovated several times over the succeeding millennia. The thickness of its ruined walls indicates that the temple was a tall tower that would have been visible for long distances.

In the 18th century bce Ḥalab was the capital of the Amorite kingdom of Yamkhad. It subsequently came under Hittite, Egyptian, Mitannian, and again Hittite rule during the 17th to the 14th century. In succeeding centuries it achieved some independence as a Hittite principality. It was conquered by the Assyrians in the 8th century bce and then was controlled by the Achaemenian Persians from the 6th to the 4th century bce. The dearth of historical records concerning Ḥalab during the periods of Assyrian and Achaemenian rule suggests that the city had declined in importance. In the early 3rd century bce the city fell into the hands of the Seleucids, who founded a Macedonian colony on the site and named it Beroea, after the ancient Macedonian city that may have been the original home of many of the arriving settlers. It became an important city of the Hellenistic period and a great commercial entrepôt between the Mediterranean region and the lands farther east. The city was absorbed into the Roman province of Syria in the 1st century bce. Jewish settlement in the area is likely to have begun during this period, and a Christian community was also established. Beroea prospered as a hub for caravan traffic under Byzantine rule but was pillaged and burned by the Persian Sasanian king Khosrow I in 540 ce.

In 637 the city was conquered by the Arabs, under whom it reverted to its old name, Ḥalab. In the 10th century the Ḥamdānid dynasty established itself in Aleppo as an independent principality. The city had a brilliant cultural life under its rule: the court of Sayf al-Dawlah, who was the founder of the dynasty in Aleppo, included such luminaries as the poet al-Mutanabbī and the philosopher al-Fārābī. The city was besieged and pillaged by the Byzantine army of Nicephorus II Phocas in 962. A period of war and disorder followed, fueled by local power struggles and by Byzantine, Fāṭimid, and Seljuq efforts to gain control of northern Syria.

In the 12th century Aleppo became a centre of Muslim resistance to the Crusaders, who besieged it unsuccessfully in 1124–25. The Crusader threat was repelled by ʿImād al-Dīn Zangī, who took control of Aleppo in 1129, and by his son Nūr al-Dīn. After Nūr al-Dīn’s death, the city passed into the control of the Ayyūbid dynasty, founded by Saladin (Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn). Under the Ayyūbid rulers, Aleppo experienced a period of exceptional prosperity. Treaties were established with the Venetians, thus restoring Aleppo’s role as an entrepôt for trade between Europe and Asia. The citadel was rebuilt, and the markets and suburbs of the city were expanded. The Ayyūbid rulers also constructed a number of madrasahs to promote the reestablishment of Sunni Islam in Aleppo, which had become a Shiʿi stronghold under the Ḥamdānids.

Ayyūbid rule came to an abrupt end in 1260 when Aleppo was taken by the Mongols, who massacred its inhabitants. The Mongols were soon ejected from Syria by the Mamluks of Egypt, but the city continued to suffer, enduring an outbreak of plague in 1348 and a devastating attack by Timur in 1400. A commercial revival in the 15th century was made possible by the decline of northern trade routes through Anatolia and the Black Sea.

In 1516 the city was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire, and it was soon made the capital of a province comprising northern Syria and parts of southern Anatolia. The commercial revival continued, spurring the rebuilding and expansion of Aleppo’s souk (market) and the construction of new khans (rest houses for traveling merchants). The city’s main imports included Persian silk and Indian pepper. In the 16th and 17th centuries Aleppo was the third largest city in the Ottoman Empire, after Constantinople (now Istanbul) and Cairo, and hosted Venetian, British, Dutch, and French consulates and trading offices. The presence of a large European merchant community was especially profitable for Christians in Aleppo, who often served as commercial agents and translators.

Prosperity continued until the middle of the 18th century, when trade declined because of a fall in the production of Persian silk that accompanied the collapse of the Safavid dynasty. The development of economical sail and steamship transport also transferred much international commercial traffic to the Mediterranean coastal cities, at the expense of inland caravan hubs such as Aleppo. The late 18th century saw a weakening of the Ottoman government’s control in Aleppo and a corresponding increase in factional conflict between powerful trade guilds and associations. Ottoman reforms provoked an episode of rioting and protest accompanied by violence and looting directed against Aleppo’s Christian community in 1850; Ottoman control, however, was soon restored.

The boundaries of modern Syria drawn by the United Kingdom and France at the end of World War I had the effect of cutting Aleppo off from territories that had been essential to its function as a centre hub of international trade, including Iraq and southeastern Turkey, especially the port city of İskenderun. However, Aleppo’s manufacturing sector continued to develop, and the city soon became an industrial centre rivaling Damascus. The city experienced a massive population expansion in the 20th century caused by migration from rural areas, and large residential developments were constructed to keep up with the demand for housing.

The rise in the mid-20th century of a new political structure dominated by ʿAlawite (Shiʿi minority sect) military officers at the expense of the traditional Sunni urban elite led occasionally to outbreaks of violence. In 1979 a simmering insurgency against the regime of Pres. Hafez al-Assad took a brutal turn when militants massacred approximately 50 cadets, most of them ʿAlawites, at a military academy in Aleppo. The government responded with a massive military deployment to Aleppo in 1980, and several hundred people were killed by special forces hunting militants in the city.

Aleppo initially remained quiet when demonstrations broke out against the regime of Pres. Bashar al-Assad in early 2011 and was thus spared the brutal reprisals by Syrian security forces. However, as the crisis evolved into a civil war, Aleppo became a centre of armed opposition activity, and full-fledged combat embroiled the city beginning in the summer of 2012. Fighting continued until December 2016, when opposition fighters surrendered the city to Syrian forces in exchange for their safe passage out of the city. Aleppo suffered far more destruction than any other city during the civil war, amounting to more than $7.5 billion worth of damage—most of it housing.