Peter’s immediate successors

Peter met with opposition in his own family: his son Alexis grew up under the influence of the clergy and obviously disapproved of Peter’s reform. Peter, for his part, was eager to set aside Alexis, a child of his first wife, Eudoxia, in favour of the children of his second wife, Catherine. Alexis fled abroad from Peter’s menaces, was brought back by fraud, imprisoned on suspicion of a conspiracy against his father’s life, and died by torture in 1718. Thus there remained only two surviving children of Peter the Great: Anna and Elizabeth, both from his marriage to Catherine.

In 1722 Peter reserved for the monarch the right to designate his successor. However, he failed to do so before he died on February 8 (January 28, Old Style), 1725. Peter’s creatures, like Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov, who had everything to fear from the survivors of old nobility, enlisted the aid of the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky Guards—Peter’s imperial household regiments. With their support, Catherine was proclaimed empress. The legitimate heir, the son of Alexis, Peter, was thus put aside. The Russian throne, as Voltaire said, became “not hereditary and not elective, but occupative.” The period from Peter’s death to Catherine II’s accession (1725–62) was an eclipse. Male members of the Romanov dynasty (that is, Peter’s grandsons Peter II and Peter III, the sons of his son Alexis and of his daughter Anna of Holstein-Gottorp, respectively) were frail and feeble of mind. The women—both Peter’s niece Anna (Ivan V’s daughter) and his daughter Elizabeth—were stronger in mind and body, but they shared their power with favourites, and their choices were not always happy.

Court life flourished under the reign of these women, and it became very luxurious and expensive. A special school was founded by Empress Anna to teach the noble guards foreign languages, dances, and good manners. Balls, theatrical plays, musical entertainments—chiefly by foreign artists—became regular pastimes. The country was badly ruled; foreign policy was venal. Russia took part in European wars with little benefit for itself. From reign to reign the noble guards gained in influence, as they practically disposed of the throne.

Catherine I (1725–27) was followed by the rightful heir, Peter II (1727–30), thanks to a compromise between Menshikov and the representatives of the old nobility. His reign was fraught with struggle between the two factions, but Anna Ivanovna, the widowed duchess of Courland (daughter of Ivan V), had a claim to the throne. The aristocrats offered her the throne on the condition of limiting her power by the supreme council (created under Catherine I) in questions of her marriage, succession, war and peace, taxation, and military appointments. Anna signed, but, profiting by the dissensions of the gentry and nobility, tore up the signed charter and reigned as an autocrat (1730–40), aided by her favourite, Ernst Johann, Reichsgraf von Biron. She tried to secure the succession in the lineage of her sister, the deceased Catherine Ivanovna, by designating as successor under the regency of Biron the baby Ivan VI, just born to her niece, Anna Leopoldovna, duchess of Brunswick. Anna Leopoldovna herself succeeded Biron as regent on November 20 (New Style), 1740, but on December 6 (New Style), 1741, the guards showed their hatred of the rule of the “Germans” by overthrowing her regency and enthroning Elizabeth, Peter the Great’s daughter, who was expected to return to Peter’s national policy. Indeed, the first fruits of Peter’s reforms ripened during Elizabeth’s reign (1741–62): national poetry, a theatre, and the first Russian university (Moscow, 1755), all auguring a deeper culture and knowledge for the next generation.

Elizabeth wished to secure the throne for the lineage of her sister Anna of Holstein-Gottorp, and she invited her nephew Peter, educated in the Lutheran religion and in the ideas of Prussian drill, to come to St. Petersburg to learn Orthodoxy and Russian habits. He came and was married (1745) to Princess Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Catherine II. He was no mate for her, however. As fast as he lost Russian sympathy by his open aversion to everything Russian, Catherine ingratiated herself by exactly opposite behaviour. After half a year of the reign of Peter III, Catherine was raised by the guards officers to the throne. The brother of her favourite Count Grigory Orlov, Aleksey, killed Peter on July 18 (New Style; July 6, Old Style), 1762.