History of Serbia
The coming of the Serbs
The use of the term Serb to name one of the Slavic peoples is of great antiquity. Ptolemy’s Guide to Geography, written in the 2nd century ce, mentions a people called “Serboi,” but it is not certain that this is a reference to the ancestors of the modern Serbs. The earliest information on the Serbs dates from the late 6th century, when they were vassals of the Avars and later clients of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius. In order to drive the Avars and Bulgars back toward the east, Heraclius concluded an alliance with several Slavic tribal groupings that had originated northeast of the Carpathian Mountains. Under Byzantine patronage, Slavs settled widely in the Balkans, reaching as far south as the Aegean Sea and even settling in parts of Asia Minor. The tribal groups known as the Serbs settled inland of the Dalmatian coast in an area extending from what is today eastern Herzegovina, across northern Montenegro, and into southeastern Serbia.
The South Slavs had become firmly established throughout the Balkans by the late 7th century, but the Slavicization of the area was a long and erratic process, as was the period of cultural assimilation under Roman rule. The area was therefore for a long time referred to as “Vlachia” and “Sclavinia.”
Medieval Serbia
The early Slav states
The unstable situation of the South Slavs, located as they were on the frontier between the Byzantine Empire and the seminomadic peoples of Asia, enabled them to assert some measure of independence. The basis of the Serbs’ social organization was the zadruga, or extended family. Several zadruge were grouped locally under a župan, or chieftain. With kinship and locality playing such a pivotal role in social organization, sustained collaboration within larger groups was difficult. Several župani might, on occasion, unite under a veliki župan, or grand chieftain, who for a short time would succeed in establishing control over a substantial territory and declare himself king or emperor.
The first such state to which Serbs attach a political identity was created by Vlastimir in about 850. This state was centred on an area in what is now eastern Montenegro and southern Serbia known as Raška and extended over the valleys of the Piva, Tara, Lim, and Ibar rivers (or roughly between the Durmitor and Kopaonik mountain ranges). The kingdom initially accepted the supremacy of Constantinople, which was subsequently torn by a contest between Simeon I, ruler of the first Bulgarian empire, and the veliki župan Česlav, leader of a rival Serb kingdom known as Zeta. After Česlav’s death, Byzantium again asserted control.
The significance of the early Serb protostates lies in their legacy of an enduring link between the Serb people and the Slavonic liturgical tradition of Orthodox Christianity. Christianity had been introduced into the Balkans during the Roman period, but the region had largely reverted to paganism by the time the Slavs arrived. There is some evidence that missionaries were active in the region as early as the 7th century. A more-permanent Christian presence was achieved in the late 9th century, when the Byzantine emperor Michael III commissioned two brothers from Thessalonica, Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius, to evangelize the Slavs. Michael encouraged Cyril and Methodius to preach in the vernacular, and to facilitate this task they invented a script using the phonetic peculiarities of the Slavic tongue. Initially known as Glagolitic, the script was subsequently revised to employ characters resembling those of Greek and became known as Cyrillic.
The translation of the scriptures and liturgy was a key aspect of the dissemination of Christianity among Serbs. The influence of the Eastern church was assured over the greater part of the Balkans, and the use of the Cyrillic alphabet became one of the most visible cultural aspects separating Serbs (together with Bulgarians, Macedonians, and Montenegrins) from Croats and Slovenes.
The Golden Age
Although the foundation of a Serbian state may be ascribed to the principality of Raška, a stable and continuous state appeared in this area only under Stefan Nemanja. Stefan assumed the throne of Raška in 1168, but he continued to acknowledge the supremacy of Byzantium until 1185. In 1196 he abdicated in favour of his son Stefan (known as Prvovenčani, the “First-Crowned”), who in 1217 secured from Pope Honorius III the title of “king of Serbia, Dalmatia, and Bosnia.” Under the Nemanjić dynasty, which was to rule the Serb lands for the next 200 years, a powerful state emerged to dominate the entire Balkan Peninsula. It was founded, in part, on the ability and administrative capacity of its rulers and also on the establishment of a link between church and state.
The rise of the Nemanjić dynasty was facilitated by the defeat of the Byzantine Empire, under the impact of the Fourth Crusade (1204), and the creation of a short-lived Latin Empire. Even after the fortunes of Byzantium were revived after 1261, the primary frontier of Nemanjić expansion lay to the south. Power was seized and consolidated through opportunities offered by a weak Constantinople, and the kingdom extended its authority over an assortment of peoples. Skopje in Macedonia was taken in 1282 by Stefan Uroš II and became the Serb capital. Under the reign of Stefan Dušan (1331–55), the Nemanjić state reached its greatest extent, incorporating Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, all of modern Albania and Montenegro, a substantial part of eastern Bosnia, and modern Serbia as far north as the Danube. Dušan adopted the title of emperor at his coronation in Skopje in 1346 (later “emperor and autocrat of the Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians, and Albanians”), but he is more commonly remembered by Serbs as Dušan Silni, or “Dušan the Mighty.” To this day the Serbs consider the empire of Dušan Silni as the Golden Age of their nation. All the Balkan states during the Middle Ages modeled themselves on, and saw themselves as the supplanters of, Byzantium. This was no less true for the Serbian state, as reflected in the titles that its monarchs took for themselves and bestowed on their subordinates and as evidenced in the famous Zakonik (code of laws) that Dušan promulgated in 1349, which fused the law of Constantinople with Serb folk custom.
Through the union of church and state, the Serb emperors strove to imitate and ultimately rival the status of the ecumenical patriarch in Constantinople. An autocephalous church was declared in 1219, with its seat at Žiča, near modern Kraljevo, and Sava, the youngest son of Stefan Nemanja, was named archbishop and later was canonized as St. Sava. (The monastery he built there was later designated a World Heritage site by UNESCO.) The Serbian church thus separated from the Bulgarian-influenced archbishopric of Ohrid. In order to escape the harassment of Tatar raiding parties, the seat of the ecclesiastical order of Nemanjić was later moved southward to Peć, in the Metohija Plain. In 1375 the archbishop of Peć was raised to the status of patriarch, in spite of the pronouncement of an anathema by Constantinople. During this time great churches and monasteries were endowed—particularly the Mileševo (c. 1235), Peć (1250), Morača (1252), Sopoćani (c. 1260), Dečani (1327), and Gračanica (1321) monasteries. Those sites have subsequently come to constitute important symbolic monuments for Serbs. The frescoes of the Raška school, in particular, are known for their capacity to blend secular authority with a deep sense of devotion. Literary work extended beyond copying manuscripts to include pieces of independent creative merit, such as the biography of Stefan Nemanja prepared by St. Sava and his brother Stefan Prvovenčani. Courtly culture became religious culture; both church and state benefited from this partnership and created a “civilization” of their own.
Economic growth also contributed to the consolidation of Nemanjić power. Such crops as hemp, flax, grapes, and oil-yielding plants became more widespread. The plains of Kosovo and Metohija became areas of fairly dense, overwhelmingly Serb, population and extensive agriculture, and mining grew considerably in importance. Not only gold and silver but also copper and tin had been exploited since Roman times, but production rose to meet the new demands of imperial courts and centres of ecclesiastical authority. Although this wealth supported a remarkably modest court, it also sustained substantial military forces. Trade expanded, particularly in the hands of Ragusan and Italian merchants, who led caravans along the old Roman routes.