“Coronavirus Origins and Conservation”

Hi, I’m John Rafferty, I am the editor for Earth Sciences at Encyclopaedia Britannica. In this episode, we will examine the origins of the coronavirus, specifically the virus SARS-CoV-2, and the disease that it causes, COVID-19.
The disease COVID-19 needs no introduction, of course, but even several months into the outbreak, its origins remain unclear. The first cases of COVID-19 likely occurred in live animal markets in the city of Wuhan, in China’s Hubei province. This is the location where the virus was first thought to have “spilled over” into humans from some other species. Against this conventional wisdom come other theories, including claims that the virus was engineered, possibly as a weapon by one government or another, or it was either deliberately or accidentally released in an unfortunate lab accident.
But when and where the virus jumped species is only part of the story. What happened before that? What about the origins of SARS-CoV-2 itself? How did the virus first evolve? As you can see, many important questions remain.
So far, our understanding is patchy. I had a chance to talk with Dr. Jonna Mazet about the origins of the virus in April, 2020. Mazet is a professor of epidemiology and disease ecology and the director of the One Health Institute at the University of California—Davis. She also sits on faculty of the medical school at the University of California, San Francisco, and she serves as the Global Director of the PREDICT Project.
MAZET:
Yeah, so, uh, for the last more than 10 years, I've been the principal investigator of a very cool project called PREDICT, where we have been proactively working with likeminded scientists and health professionals and policy makers in more than 30 countries around the world to try to get ahead of spillover events, or events where animal viruses get into the human population, in order to work to help prevent and be ready for epidemics and pandemics.

In this episode, Dr. Mazet provides some of the answers to these questions, while at the same time she spotlights new questions that we need to consider that could help us identify the origin of SARS-CoV-2, some of the conditions under which past viral outbreaks have occurred, and how the epidemics and even pandemics of the future could get started.
So, how did we get here—to this place of quarantines, lockdowns, social distancing, and masks? What were the forces that brought about our present situation? Didn’t we have safeguards in place for this sort of thing already?
MAZET:
Yeah, so, COVID-19, as we're all experiencing, is a very dangerous virus. It causes very mild or even no symptoms in some individuals and causes severe symptoms as we know and death and others. And it is caused by a coronavirus similar to SARS and MERS, and other coronaviruses that even cause just a common cold. These coronaviruses have been of specific concern to scientists like me and people in the PREDICT network that I mentioned. We were specifically looking for and finding coronaviruses and other viruses in those taxonomic viral families that could spill over into people to try and help policymakers and public health systems get ready in advance to respond to the spillover events and preferably stop them at their source.
That requires two things. That requires the science, and it requires the political will to jump into action really rapidly, and I think over the last decade where I, I was lucky to lead this amazing consortium of people. We were raising the flag, waving the flag saying, “Please, we're finding these viruses. We think we need to have nimble systems in order to be ready to respond to them.” Other scientists also working in this realm, and not, we're agreeing and saying, “Hey, we need to be ready.” But I think, um, human nature is such that policymakers and others have to deal with the diseases and the stressors to their populations right in front of them and maybe didn't elevate this potential to cause severe disease like COVID-19 to the top of the priority list until just recently, and in many places after the SARS-coronavirus-2 spilled over into people, uh, and started this terrible pandemic.
Coronavirus did not start with us. It evolved in a different species and the virus “jumped” to humans. It makes sense to begin this process of understanding with what we know. So, how DID it begin? Where did it come from?
MAZET:
Yeah. Wow. You know, I'd like to know where it comes from too.
These viruses that have the opportunity to spill over, and in studying them, we had, again with the PREDICT Project, just the ability to go to certain locations, and the amount of funding available was only to get to certain highest risk interfaces, where people were interacting with animals and highest risk species. From that, we were able to estimate about how many viruses are out there, and we know there are hundreds of thousands of viruses that we don't know about yet that could spill over and impact us.
Coronaviruses certainly [are] at the top of our risk list there. We didn't need this terrible event to show us that coronaviruses were at the top of our list, but they're there because they seem to jump species very easily. So, some coronaviruses have the ability to infect multiple kinds of hosts, humans being one of them, but also the hosts that they evolved in. And then other animal hosts, that we call intermediate or transmission hosts, that could harbor the virus and then expose other species, including humans.
All the evidence that we've seen—the scientific community has seen—is that this coronavirus, SARS coronavirus, points us to being a naturally evolved virus that spilled over from almost certainly a bat host into either humans directly or into another species that served as a transmission host.
So, what we do feel very confident in the scientific community of saying is that this is not a lab created or engineered virus or a bioweapon. It is a naturally evolved virus, but again, the circumstances by which it infected its first person, we don't know. We do know a lot because of the PREDICT Project about what kind of high-risk activities people are participating in all over the world, but in China and Southeast Asia that put people at risk.

Stay with us. We'll be back in just a moment.
This is “Postcards from the 6th Mass Extinction,” and I'm John Rafferty.
It probably makes sense to learn a bit more about coronavirus (or another virus for that matter) enters the human population. Are there any ingredients that we should be aware of?
MAZET
We certainly know that putting wild animals into contact with people (who may be naive or haven't in our evolutionary history seen these viruses) makes us very much more likely to be susceptible to those viruses. So, as the human population grows and grows, we push out into more rural and even pristine environments, where wildlife species are living, and we disrupt those ecosystems. That causes, sometimes, direct extinction of insects and plants and mammals and birds, but it also can disrupt the ecosystems and allow certain animals to sort of become overpopulated and lose the ecological balance.
So, any of that land use change is really an area where we've seen more and more viruses being able to spill over. That, in combination with the people in urban centers being more and more densely populated as our population grows and wanting, for example, historical food products from their traditions (like we eat turkeys at Thanksgiving) people in really densely populated urban centers are wanting some of the more historical or natural or more-rural foods like wildlife products.
And so, we do see that all along that value chain—where wildlife has taken from the wild and butchered and moved into markets or taken from the wild and put into intense farming situations—these things also are extremely risky for transmission events and even amplification or exposure into domestic animal populations that humans come into contact with more frequently. So, all of these things are incredibly risky, and we can actually monitor, and we have identified across that value chain, all the way from the field to even restaurants that serve live wildlife—you can pick out live animals in the restaurant. That end of the value chain that tends to be more in urban centers where people are more likely to be contacting each other and transmitting disease, that's the highest end risk in that value chain.
Recent research singles out horseshoe bats and pangolins as potential sources for human coronavirus, because of the similarities between the coronavirus they harbor in their bodies and SARS-CoV-2 in ours, but pangolin coronavirus and bat coronavirus are still different than the virus driving the pandemic in humans.
Horseshoe bats, which number more than 80 species, are fairly common (depending on the species) and found in tropical and temperate regions from Europe to Japan and from Asia to Africa. They are usually brown but occasionally are red. They are small, about 1.4 to 4.3 inches long (an inch or two longer when the tail is included) and typically weigh no more than one ounce. Horseshoe bats live in groups and roost in damp, dark places such as caves. Species native to temperate regions hibernate in winter.
In contrast, pangolins, which are also called scaly anteaters, number only eight species. They are found in tropical Asia and Africa. Pangolins are 1 to 3 feet long, not including the tail, and weigh from 10 to 60 pounds. All pangolin species have been hunted for their meat—and their organs, skin, scales, and other parts of the body are valued for their use in traditional medicine. As a result, populations of all eight species have fallen to the point that they became threatened with extinction during the early 21st century.
MAZET:
I can definitely talk to you about why horseshoe bats are so much in the news. And, um, through looking in, again, Southeast Asia and along the China border, our teams, in cooperation with others, were able to find quite a lot of virus coronaviruses in species like horseshoe bats. And the horseshoe bat specifically was carrying a coronavirus that could infect humans through the ACE2 receptors. So, it had the spike protein (or the key) that fits into the lock (or the receptor) on human cells called the ACE2 receptor and infect fact humans directly. So, horseshoe bats, when we were studying the original SARS and looking for other SARS-related viruses, had a virus that looked like it could infect people directly. Then later, the most genetically (full-genome) related virus to the SARS-2-coronavirus was also found in horseshoe bats.
And so, that also made us concerned that horseshoe bats had viruses that could spill over into people. Though—and why we talk about pangolins and other species I'll explain—that virus, that most closely related virus, 96% similar over the whole genome, didn't have as good of a fit between that lock and that key (the spike protein) as some other viruses. So, there have been coronaviruses found in pangolins, for example, one of the world's most trafficked animals or illegally traded, and on the brink of extinction. Pangolins had a coronavirus that looked like it had more closely related spike protein (or key) to fit into the human ACE2 receptor. So, that made pangolin of interest as well. Over the whole genome, that virus is less closely related to SARS-2-coronavirus, but there, the important part of how it gets into the cell, was more closely related. So, all of these things point to a evolutionary host of SARS-2-coronavirus being in bats, but we don't know which bat. We would guess that it might be in the group of bats that horseshoe bats fall into (and that is the microchiropteran or the small insectivorous bats, for the most part). So, we really do want to understand that better, but neither of these viruses nor the micro bats have been studied broadly, as broadly as needed, to be able to really understand this situation.
But where did SARS-Cov-2 get its start? Horseshoe bats provide some clues, of course, but it turns out that the possible scenes of the crime, so to speak, as well as the species-jumping ability of the virus are important factors to consider too.
MAZET:
I don't want to vilify the horseshoe bat, because it happens to be one that we had access to and the scientific community has been able to study. That virus that has been found to be most closely related to SARS-2-coronavirus is still quite distant from SARS-2-coronavirus. And, as far as we know, SARS-2-coronavirus itself had never been identified before it was in a human patient that got sick. So, unfortunately, um, my team and, uh, collaborators weren't studying bats or viruses in the Hubei province, where this virus probably spilled over. So, we weren't aware of this virus. Again, we were only working in very specific locations, really developing the proof of concept of what we've identified as the research agenda that needs to happen. And some of us are pulling together into what's now called the Global Virome Project, which would allow us to study all of the hosts (all the mammalian hosts, including all of the bats) and identify nearly all, if not, you know, very close to all the virus, that's able to spill over into people.

So, because we studied horseshoe bats, we know they have a closely related virus, but we weren't really specifically targeting studying horseshoe bats. We were studying interfaces where people were interacting with wildlife. And in this case, we knew people go into caves where horseshoe bats exist for ecotourism. People go into other caves to collect guano to use this fertilizer. So, we studied those interfaces and all of the species at those interfaces, including humans to see what viruses they're sharing. And in doing that, we did find this, this most closely related virus, but it's still (from a genetic perspective) quite distant from the one that caused this horrible pandemic.


MAZET:
Species jumping differs by the virus. So, some viruses are very species specific, and other viruses jump easily and may or may not cause disease in any of the hosts that we've seen them jump into. And then others tend to be non-pathogenic in their evolutionary host. So, in this case, if we're thinking that (and we are) that the evolutionary close was probably a bat, it would be unlikely for SARS-coronavirus-2, to cause disease in its evolutionary host. But when it spills over into a susceptible host, it could cause disease.
And we've seen that throughout history. For example, there are herpes virus that caused us just a cold sore in humans. When it spills over into certain nonhuman primates, monkeys, it can cause deadly disease. And similarly, the herpes virus that causes those kinds of sores in monkeys, when it spills over into people, it can kill us. So, we see that when we're, sort of, have the mechanistic ability to receive a virus, it may still act differently in its new hosts. So, coronaviruses, or as a whole family of virus, that we've been very worried about jumping species. Others that you would know about are, and all of the listeners would know about, include filoviruses (or the ones that cause Ebola). Those are also ones that we think almost always spill over from an evolutionary host. And again, most of those are bats, into either transmission host or intermediate host, as I mentioned, and then can make that host sick. Maybe. Maybe not, and then into humans or directly into humans. So, there are many viruses that can spill over, but there are many that don't at all.
Recently, we have discovered that SARS-CoV-2 spillover doesn't just end with us. Lions and tigers and zoos, and even dogs and cats, have been infected with this virus.
MAZET:
So, we call that often spillback. So, spillover would be the initial transmission from the virus into the first susceptible human. We know now that we have widespread community (or human-to-human) spread of the virus. So, humans are right now, unfortunately, the primary host for the disease, as well as that transmission host that can infect other species. So again, the most plausible explanations are that these, this virus, is being transmitted around the world by humans, and then humans are spilling back. (Our infection is spilling back into other species.) We don't know how risky additional spillovers into human from species that received it from humans are going to be, and that's an area of research and concern, because certainly we want to protect our pets and food animals and all of the companion animals that we interact with, as well as those that might be in captive or close contact with people.
And in many areas (even in our parks and protected areas) there is a lot of human encroachment and mixing in those areas and opportunities for exposure. We haven't found SARS-2-coronavirus in any naturally occurring species yet, because we haven't been looking. I think right when the SARS-2-coronavirus problems started, it was recognized in humans. And again, there wasn't that work in those species that are our potential hosts in that region, so we don't have that data. Though, that is something that the predict project is continuing to support now is looking more carefully into our archives of samples from multiple candidate host species around China. So, not in China. I'm assuming and hoping that the Chinese are looking very carefully at both the potential hosts in Hubei province, but also in those early human cases to be able to identify what kind of risk factors, what kind of interfaces they were working in, what kind of animals they were coming into contact with, and trying to find that initial information about spillover. That will be critical for us to understand, going forward, and be able to, to get the whole story and protect from future exposure events.
Could SARS-CoV-2 evolve to become more infectious and more serious?
MAZET:
I think there's some thought that a mutation occurred that allowed this virus to be more infectious to humans, and that's always possible, but it is just as likely that if the virus already had that architecture, [it] just was evolving to be a good virus in its evolutionary host. Um, so it had architecture very similar to human architecture and how, how those things fit together. So, it didn't necessarily need to change to spill over. It could have been native virus sort of state, and it was just a transmission opportunity that turned into human-to-human spread. So, again, there's, there's so much to be done to understand that, but we know both things are possible. And we've seen that, for example, in influenza, where there is a change (or remixing of virus) that allows it to more easily infect humans. And that's often from bird hosts that these spillovers happen or remixing happens. But it is also possible that the virus already just had the architecture, but wasn't able—just hadn't been introduced into a human that was susceptible until now.
The COVID-19 pandemic is today’s pandemic, but what about future pandemics? Where might they come from? Will it be another coronavirus or a different type? Which viruses are the international community most concerned about?
MAZET:
Some that rise right up to the top are those, uh, specifically coronaviruses, but also things like filoviruses (that we've already talked about that Ebola belongs to) but paramyxoviruses, I think, are very concerning. That's the family that has measles, for example, in it. So, we're really watching those. And we're also always on the lookout and watching for influenza viruses. So, there's about 25 candidates that have caused disease and epidemics and pandemics in the past that are on our watch list.
COVID-19 is, is my generation of scientists' and policy makers' call to action. And we need to do the work that we had been doing and predict on a global scale, take it to scale, take it to understand the viruses and all of the mammal and bird hosts.( That's the global viral project. I'm proud to have joined and be on the board to try and make that happen, get the international cooperation to, again, find viruses and understand their transmission risks, characterize that risk and help people be ready for them.
I guess I was working on disease X (especially for a decade, but really for two decades) trying to understand the risks and be ready for them. And now I think it is time to put a lot more of that energy that comes from the science and integrate it with policy so that we have nimble systems that can respond to disease X. Our disease X right now is COVID-19. We don't know what the next one is, but we can be ready for it. We can be ready to have the really talented experts in our country and elsewhere jump in early and help us with rapid diagnostics, vaccines, all of those things. And we need to streamline our processes, so this never happens again, and I'll be my dedicating my career—the rest of it—to that.
The COVID-19 outbreak is an incredibly challenging event. Despite what we know about it, progress in treating it and developing an effective vaccine seems overwhelming at times. This is not lost on Dr. Mazet. She does, however, see a bit of a silver lining.
MAZET:

We can do better, though; we can learn from this. I think we've seen amazing cooperation, again, mostly amongst the scientists across disciplinary or professional lines, as well as geographic boundaries. And I hope that we can really use the science and this spirit of cooperation—recognizing that we're all in this together—to use all the tools at our disposal to fight COVID-19 and also be ready for the next spillover event—and hopefully stop it at its source—because we do know that this one is terrible, but the next one could be more deadly and we need to be ready.

Although the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, and the disease that it causes, COVID-19, continues to disrupt the lives of most, researchers around the world are working to better understand the damage that it causes, how it is transmitted, and how it evolved.
I hope that you were able to learn a little bit more about how viruses emerge and how they spill over into humans and other species, as well as the roles that bats, pangolins, and human beings play in the origins of coronavirus.
I hope you gained an appreciation for the ecological services that bats and pangolins provide, why it’s in our best interest to keep them around, and how the ecological turmoil brought on by the 6th Mass Extinction may actually make spillover-driven epidemics and pandemics more frequent.
Don’t forget, you can catch up on anything you might have missed on Britannica.com. Learn more about extinction and its causes from our article located at 64.176.36.150/science/extinction-biology.
There, you can also find other parts of this podcast series. More information on viruses, disease, pangolins, and bats can found at 64.176.36.150.

Coronavirus Origins and Conservation.
• Story by: John Rafferty
• Produced by: Kurt Heintz
• A special thanks to Dr. Jonna Mazet for her contributions to this episode
• This is the eighth part of the “Postcards from the 6th Mass Extinction” series. This program is copyrighted by Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.