Salinity
The term salinity refers to the amount of dissolved salts that are present in water. Sodium and chloride are the predominant ions in seawater, and the concentrations of magnesium, calcium, and sulfate ions are also substantial. Naturally occurring waters vary in salinity from the almost pure water, devoid of salts, in snowmelt to the saturated solutions in salt lakes such as the Dead Sea. Salinity in the oceans is constant but is more variable along the coast where seawater is diluted with freshwater from runoff or from the emptying of rivers. This brackish water forms a barrier separating marine and freshwater organisms.
The cells of organisms also contain solutions of dissolved ions, but the range of salinity that occurs in tissues is more narrow than the range that occurs in nature. Although a minimum number of ions must be present in the cytoplasm for the cell to function properly, excessive concentrations of ions will impair cellular functioning. Organisms that live in aquatic environments and whose integument is permeable to water, therefore, must be able to contend with osmotic pressure. This pressure arises if two solutions of unequal solute concentration exist on either side of a semipermeable membrane such as the skin. Water from the solution with a lower solute concentration will cross the membrane diluting the more highly concentrated solution until both concentrations are equalized. If the salt concentration of an animal’s body fluids is higher than that of the surrounding environment, the osmotic pressure will cause water to diffuse through the skin until the concentrations are equal unless some mechanism prevents this from happening.
Many marine invertebrates have the same osmotic pressure as seawater. When the salt concentration of their surroundings changes, however, they must be able to adjust. Two means of contending with this situation are employed, and, depending on how they regulate the salt concentrations of their tissues, organisms are classified as osmoregulators or osmoconformers. The osmotic concentration of the body fluids of an osmoconformer changes to match that of its external environment, whereas an osmoregulator controls the osmotic concentration of its body fluids, keeping them constant in spite of external alterations. Aquatic organisms that can tolerate a wide range of external ion concentrations are called euryhaline; those that have a limited tolerance are called stenohaline.
Even if aquatic organisms have an integument that is relatively impermeable to water, as well as to small inorganic ions, their respiratory exchange surfaces are permeable. Hence, organisms occurring in water that has a lower solute concentration than their tissues (e.g., trout in mountain streams) will constantly lose ions to the environment as water flows into their tissues. In contrast, organisms in salty environments face a constant loss of water and an influx of ions.
Many mechanisms have evolved that deal with these problems. Because water cannot be readily pumped across cell membranes, salinity balance is usually maintained by actively transporting inorganic ions, usually sodium and chloride. This process consumes energy and can usurp a large portion of the energy budget of animals in very saline environments. In marine fish, gill cells pump ions out of the body into the sea, while in freshwater fish gill cells pump ions in the opposite direction. Passive water loss in marine fish is compensated primarily in one of two ways. Most bony fish drink copiously and excrete salt across the gills, while the majority of sharks artificially elevate the salt concentration of their tissues above that of seawater with urea and other organic molecules, allowing water to slowly and passively enter the body. Through their food and across their gills, freshwater fish replenish most of the ions they lose. They also produce large quantities of very dilute urine to excrete excess water that diffuses into their bodies ().
Water currents
The flow of water presents special problems for aquatic organisms. Flow is associated with rivers, oceanic currents, and waves and can be laminar (streamlined) or turbulent. Many organisms are specialized to live in flowing environments; the main obstacle to this lifestyle is the constant threat of being washed away. Both plants and animals have evolved mechanisms that help to anchor them to the substratum in flowing water (e.g., the holdfast of kelp or the byssus threads of mussels). If anchorage can be assured, there are many advantages to living in this environment. Flowing water generally is well oxygenated, and the supply is continuous; nutrients and food are constantly replenished as well. The very precariousness of the environment also affords some protection from predation because the number of predators that make this type of habitat home is limited.
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure
Variations in atmospheric pressure can present special problems for the respiratory systems of animals because atmospheric pressure affects the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide that occurs during animal respiration. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is the total pressure that a column of air above the surface of Earth exerts (760 millimetres of mercury, or 1 atmosphere). The total pressure is the sum of the pressures that each gas—mainly nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide—would exert alone (the partial pressure of that gas; see respiration: The gases in the environment). As an animal breathes, oxygen moves from the environment across the respiratory surfaces into the blood; carbon dioxide moves in the reverse direction. This process occurs primarily by passive diffusion; each gas moves from an area of greater to lesser partial pressure, driven by the differential that exists across the respiratory surface. At higher altitudes, where the atmospheric pressure is lower, the partial pressure of oxygen is also lower. The partial pressure differential of oxygen, therefore, is also lower, and the organism effectively receives less oxygen when it breathes, even though the percentage of oxygen in the air remains constant. This lack of oxygen is why humans carry oxygen when ascending to high altitudes. Humans who live in mountainous regions, however, can become acclimatized to the lowered availability of oxygen, and certain animals such as llamas have adaptations of the blood that allow them to live at high altitudes. Birds have very efficient lungs, and many apparently have no problems flying to high altitudes, even for extended flights (see respiration: High altitudes).
Hydrostatic pressure
Because air and water have vastly different densities, the pressures experienced in terrestrial and aquatic habitats differ markedly. A column of water, so much denser than air, exerts a greater amount of pressure than a column of air. With each 10-metre (32.8-foot) increase in depth, there is an increase in hydrostatic pressure equivalent to one atmosphere. Mean ocean depth is about 3,800 metres and has a pressure of about 380 atmospheres. To surmount this environmental challenge, animals that live at great depths lack air compartments such as lungs or swim bladders. Surface-dwelling animals that dive to great depths meet this challenge differently. As pressure increases during a dive, air compartments compress, returning to their former volume when the animal surfaces. Air is forced into the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, where no gas uptake occurs. Thus, the increased pressure cannot drive more gases into the bloodstream, and, as the animal rises, it does not experience the “bends” (decompression sickness resulting from a rapid reduction of air pressure). In contrast, sea snakes avoid the bends by excreting nitrogen across the skin to offset the uptake of this gas from the lungs.
Michael B. Thompson