geoid

geoid, model of the figure of Earth—i.e., of the planet’s size and shape—that coincides with mean sea level over the oceans and continues in continental areas as an imaginary sea-level surface defined by spirit level. It serves as a reference surface that can be used to measure precise elevations of Earth’s surface features. The scientific discipline concerned with the precise figure of Earth and its determination and significance is known as geodesy.

The geoid is everywhere perpendicular to the pull of gravity and approximates the shape of a regular oblate spheroid (i.e., a flattened sphere). It is irregular, however, because of local buried-mass concentrations (departures from lateral homogeneity at depth) and because of differences in elevation between continents and seafloors. Mathematically speaking, the geoid is an equipotential surface; that is, it is characterized by the fact that over its entire extent the potential function is constant. This potential function describes the combined effects of the gravitational attraction of Earth’s mass and the centrifugal repulsion caused by the rotation of Earth about its axis.

Because of the irregular mass distributions in Earth and the resultant gravity anomalies, the geoid is not a simple mathematical surface. It consequently is not a suitable reference surface for a geometric figure of Earth. As reference figures of Earth, but not for its topography, simple geometric forms are used that approximate the geoid. For many purposes an adequate geometric representation of Earth is a sphere, for which only the radius of the sphere must be stated. When a more accurate reference figure is required, an ellipsoid of revolution is used as a representation of Earth’s shape and size. It is a surface generated by rotating an ellipse 360° about its minor axis. An ellipsoid that is used in geodetic calculations to represent Earth is called a reference ellipsoid. This ellipsoid of revolution is the shape most often used to represent a simple geometric reference surface.

An ellipsoid of revolution is specified by two parameters: a semimajor axis (equatorial radius for Earth) and a semiminor axis (polar radius), or the flattening. Flattening (f) is defined as the difference in magnitude between the semimajor axis (a) and the semiminor axis (b) divided by the semimajor axis, or f = (a − b)/a. For Earth the semimajor axis and semiminor axis differ by about 21 kilometres (13 miles), and the flattening is about one part in 300. The departures of the geoid from the best fitting ellipsoid of revolution are about ±100 metres (330 feet); the difference between the two semiaxes of the equatorial ellipse in the case of a triaxial ellipsoid fitting Earth is only about 80 metres.

This article reviews the development of simple geometric representations of Earth, beginning with the ancient Greeks. It then discusses the concept of the geoid and the ways in which tracking of artificial satellites and satellite mapping of the ocean surface have aided in the geodetic assessment of Earth’s shape and gravity field. It concludes by showing how this work has resulted in more refined values for Earth’s radius, mass, and density.

Determination of Earth’s figure

A historical review

Spherical era

The ancients

Credit for the idea that Earth is spherical is usually given to Pythagoras (flourished 6th century bce) and his school, who reasoned that, because the Moon and the Sun are spherical, Earth is too. Notable among other Greek philosophers, Hipparchus (2nd century bce) and Aristotle (4th century bce) came to the same conclusion. Aristotle devoted a part of his book De caelo (On the Heavens) to the defense of the doctrine. He also estimated that the circumference of Earth is about 400,000 stadia (a Greek stadium varied in length locally from 154 to 215 metres). Since the length of his stadium is not known with certainty, the accuracy of his estimate cannot be established. This seems to be the first scientific attempt to estimate the size of Earth. Eratosthenes (3rd century bce), however, is considered to be one of the founders of geodesy because he was the first to describe and apply a scientific measuring technique for determining the size of Earth (see the figure). He used a simple principle of estimating the size of a great circle passing through the North and South poles. Knowing the length of an arc (l) and the size of the corresponding central angle (a) that it subtends, one can obtain the radius of the sphere from the simple proportion that length of arc to size of the great circle (or circumference, 2πR, in which R is Earth’s radius) equals central angle to the angle subtended by the whole circumference (360°):

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In order to determine the central angle a, Eratosthenes selected the city of Syene (modern Aswān on the Nile) because there the Sun in midsummer shone at noon vertically into a well. He assumed that all sunrays reaching Earth were parallel to one another, and he observed that the sunrays at Alexandria at the same time (midsummer at noontime) were not vertical but lay at an angle 1/50 of a complete revolution of Earth away from the zenith. Probably using data obtained by surveyors (official pacers), he estimated the distance (l) between Alexandria and Syene to be 5,000 stadia. From the above equation Eratosthenes obtained, for the length of a great circle, 50 × 5,000 = 250,000 stadia, which, using a plausible contemporary value for the stadium (185 metres), is 46,250,000 metres. The result is about 15 percent too large in comparison with modern measurements, but his result was extremely good considering the assumptions and the equipment with which the observations were made.