Convergent plate boundaries

Igneous rocks associated with convergent plate boundaries have the greatest diversity. In this case, granite batholiths underlie the great composite volcanoes and consist of rocks ranging from basalt through andesite to dacite and rhyolite. These boundaries are destructive and consume the subducting oceanic lithosphere formed at the divergent centres. The rocks generated, however, are added on (accreted) to the continent. Oceanic trenches outline the junction of the colliding plates, but the igneous activity takes place on the overriding plate along a line at least about 100 kilometres above the subducting plate (see Figure 3). In other words, almost no volcanism occurs between this 100-kilometre line (called the volcanic front) and the trench. The horizontal distance between the trench and the volcanic front depends on the angle of subduction; the steeper the angle, the shorter the distance. Volcanism occurs from this volcanic axis inland for a few hundred kilometres. The dominant rock constituting the composite volcanoes is andesite, but in some younger island arcs basalt tends to be more common, and in older volcanic areas dacite or rhyolite becomes prominent. Two different series of rocks are found in some volcanic chains. In Japan a tholeiitic series and a calc-alkalic series sometimes erupt from the same volcano. The former is characterized by lower magnesium, potassium, nickel, chromium, uranium, and thorium and a higher iron:magnesium ratio. Mineralogically, the tholeiitic series characteristically contains pigeonite (a low-calcium monoclinic pyroxene) in the groundmass of the basalts and andesites. The calc-alkalic series lacks pigeonite but instead has hypersthene. Most of the composite volcanoes of the Cascades Range in Oregon and Washington in the northwestern United States are characteristically calc-alkalic. In some volcanic arcs in areas farthest from the trench, a potassic series is found. In Japan the volcanoes within the Sea of Japan and farthest from the Japan Trench have alkali basalt compositions. Recent discoveries in modern convergent margins have identified igneous rocks within the oceanic trench sediments. These occur in regions where a mid-ocean ridge is being subducted. This creates higher heat flow and different types of igneous rocks, termed trondhjemite-tonalite-dacite (TTD) suites and alkaline, mafic, and felsic types.

In older areas of convergence, the composite volcanoes have been eroded, exposing the deeper plutonic granite batholiths that extend the entire length of the convergent boundaries. The batholiths are predominantly granodiorite, but gabbro through granite occur as well. It seems anomalous to find diorite, the plutonic equivalent of andesite, in low abundance since andesite is the dominant rock type of the volcanoes that were above these batholiths. Two basic types of granite have been recognized. The more common variety is located closer to the trench, has hornblende as its mafic mineral, is enriched in sodium and calcium, and has mantle chemical signatures; it is called I-type granite. The other type, called S-type granite, has muscovite and biotite and is depleted in sodium but enriched in aluminum such that corundum occurs in the norm and isotopic signatures. This suggests that such granites were formed by partial fusion of sedimentary rocks.

Flood basalts

On the continental plates at areas away from active convergence, the magmatism is confined to rift valleys and local hot spots. The volume of magma produced is minor in comparison to that generated at oceanic rises and at convergent plate boundaries. Flood basalts are the most common form of occurrence. They span the rock record from the Precambrian to the Neogene Period (from about 4.6 billion to 2.6 million years ago) and are found worldwide. The 1.1-billion-year-old Keweenawan flood basalts in the Lake Superior region of northern Michigan may have formed in a rift that failed. The rifting of Pangaea that began during Jurassic time (approximately 200 million to 146 million years ago) generated flood basalt eruptions all along the newly opened Atlantic Ocean. Two voluminous eruptions associated with the opening of the South Atlantic produced the Paraná basalt in Brazil and the Karoo (or Karroo) in South Africa. The Deccan basalts in India were formed in the rift valleys associated with the breakup of Gondwana during the Cretaceous Period (approximately 146 million to 65.5 million years ago). Chemically, the most abundant basalts are supersaturated tholeiites with normative quartz, but olivine tholeiites and alkali basalts also are found. Feeder dike swarms (groups consisting of many parallel dikes) and sills are common in flood basalt plateaus. Alkaline rocks, such as those found in the East African Rift System, occur as well but are less abundant. This rift system stretches southward from the Red Sea–Gulf of Aden to Lake Victoria. Undersaturated basalts are most common in these rifts. During one eruption, a magma composed mostly of sodium carbonate issued from a volcanic vent that had been erupting alkali basalts.

Other terrestrial occurrences

Other diverse and unusual igneous rocks are found in the stable continental areas far from plate boundaries. These include the large layered basaltic intrusions—namely, the Stillwater Complex in Montana, the Muskox intrusion in the Northwest Territories of Canada, the Bushveld Complex in South Africa, and the Skaergaard intrusion in eastern Greenland. Tholeiitic magma underwent a fractional crystallization process that deposited layers of ultramafic rocks overlain by gabbroic and anorthositic layers. The end products of this fractionation are quartz- and feldspar-bearing rocks with a peculiar texture (known as graphic intergrowth) in which quartz and feldspar are intimately intergrown with each other. These rocks are called granophyres. Such layered intrusions have some economic importance; some of them contain thick (a few metres) layers of chromite, which is the source of chromium and also platinum. Two other rare occurrences in cratonic (stable) areas of Earth’s crust are the kimberlites and carbonatites. Both are of economic value because they yield diamonds and niobium, respectively. Kimberlites are mica peridotites that are found in pipes. The stable interiors of South Africa and Siberia have widespread occurrences, but these pipes also are found in North America, Australia, Brazil, and India. In North America, near Murfreesboro, Arkansas, individuals can pay a fee to search for diamonds in the Prairie Creek kimberlite pipe located in the Crater of Diamonds State Park. Not all kimberlites contain diamonds. When diamonds do occur, they constitute less than one part per million of the rock. Carbonatites are igneous rocks rich in carbonate (containing at least 50 percent) that commonly occur in ring complexes in association with other silica-poor rocks such as nepheline syenites. In North America, carbonatites have been found in dozens of localities in northern Ontario and western Quebec.

Extraterrestrial occurrences

The dominant igneous rock on Earth’s surface is basalt. It appears that such is also the case on Earth’s close neighbours. The lunar maria are covered with basalt lava flows. These lunar basalts have a mineralogy similar to that of terrestrial basalts, but chemically they have no water, a lower amount of alkalis and alumina, and a higher iron oxide and chromium content. On the lunar highlands, plagioclase-rich rocks are most common; these include anorthosites, gabbros, troctolites (olivine-plagioclase rock), and minor basalt. It appears that basalt is common on Mars as well. The large shield volcano Olympus Mons must have been formed from eruptions of fluid basalt flows. The X-ray fluorescence analyses performed by the Vikings 1 and 2 landers showed that the rocks are basaltic. In contrast, compositions of meteorites that originated from Mars include both basalts and ultramafic rocks such as dunite, clinopyroxenite, and iherzolite. The Mars Pathfinder and Rover show that andesite may also be present, but that result is still debated. Venus apparently has volcanic features with granitic to basaltic compositions.