Deficiencies caused by malnutrition
In countries where the diet, especially that of growing children, is grossly deficient in protein, severe malnutrition ranks as an important cause of immune deficiency. Antibody responses and cell-mediated immunity are seriously impaired, probably because of atrophy of the thymus and the consequent deficiency of helper T cells. The impairment renders children particularly susceptible to measles and diarrheal diseases. Fortunately, the thymus and the rest of the immune system can recover completely if adequate nutrition is restored.
Deficiencies associated with limited environmental exposure
The failure of regulatory T cells as a result of reduced exposure to microorganisms in the natural environment during early childhood has been associated with the development of certain allergic conditions, autoimmune disorders (e.g., type I diabetes and multiple sclerosis), and inflammatory bowel diseases. While the mechanism underlying T cell failure in this context remains unclear, it is known that normally harmless microorganisms that coevolved with humans can help prevent the body from generating inappropriate immune responses. This idea was first proposed in the late 1980s by American immunologist David P. Strachan in his hygiene hypothesis. The hypothesis suggested that small family size and increased personal hygiene reduced childhood exposure to infections and thereby resulted in the development of allergic disorders. Building on the hygiene hypothesis, scientists later proposed that the continued increase in the prevalence of allergic disorders and chronic inflammatory diseases in urban populations in the 21st century was linked to diminished contact with biodiverse environments and the microorganisms they contain.
Allergies
The immune system recognizes and responds to almost any foreign molecule; it cannot discern between molecules that are characteristic of potentially infective agents and those that are not. In other words, an immune response can be induced by materials that have nothing to do with infection. The mechanisms brought into play, though beneficial for eliminating microbes, are not necessarily beneficial when otherwise innocuous substances are targeted. Furthermore, even initially protective mechanisms can cause secondary disorders when they operate on too great a scale or for a longer period than necessary, thereby damaging tissues remote from the infection. The terms allergy and hypersensitivity are commonly used to describe inappropriate immune responses that occur when an individual becomes sensitized to harmless substances. Allergic reactions do not as a rule cause symptoms to arise on the first exposure to an antigen. At the initial exposure reactive lymphocytes are generated that go into action only when the individual is reexposed to the antigen.
The manifestations of a particular allergic reaction depend on which of the immune mechanisms predominates in the response. Based on this criterion, immunologists use the Gell-Coombs classification system to recognize four types of hypersensitivity reactions. Types I, II, and III involve antibody-mediated mechanisms and are of rapid onset. The type IV reaction stems from cell-mediated mechanisms and has a delayed onset. It should be noted that the categorization, though useful, is an oversimplification and that many diseases involve a combination of hypersensitivity reactions.
Type I hypersensitivity
Type I, also known as atopic or anaphylactic hypersensitivity, involves IgE antibody, mast cells, and basophils.
Sensitization, activation, and effector phases
Type I hypersensitivity can be divided into three phases. The first is called the sensitization phase and occurs when the individual is first exposed to antigen. Exposure stimulates the production of IgE antibodies, which bind to mast cells and circulating basophils. The mast cells are found in tissues, often near blood vessels. The second phase is the activation phase, and it occurs when the individual is reexposed to the antigen. Reintroduction of the antigen causes IgE molecules to become cross-linked, which triggers the mast cells and basophils to release the contents of their granules into the surrounding fluids, initiating the third phase, called the effector phase, of the type I reaction. The effector phase includes all the body’s complex reactions to the potent chemicals from the granules. The chemicals include histamine, which causes small blood vessels to dilate and smooth muscle in the bronchial tubes of the lungs to constrict; heparin, which prevents blood coagulation; enzymes that break down proteins; signaling agents that attract eosinophils and neutrophils; and a chemical that stimulates platelets to adhere to blood vessel walls and to release serotonin, which constricts arteries. In addition the stimulated mast cells make chemicals (prostaglandins and leukotrienes) that have potent local effects; they cause capillary blood vessels to leak, smooth muscles to contract, granulocytes to move more actively, and platelets to become sticky.