knockout mouse

knockout mouse, genetically engineered laboratory mouse (Mus musculus) in which a specific gene has been inactivated, or “knocked out,” by the introduction of a foreign (artificial) DNA sequence. Knockout mice exhibit modifications in phenotype (observable traits) and thereby provide important clues about the function of individual genes. Mice and humans share many genes in common. Hence, information from knockout mouse models can shed light on the biological roles of specific genes as well as on the involvement of those genes in human disease.

Generation of knockout mice

Technologies used to generate knockout mice include homologous recombination (or gene targeting) and gene trapping. Both approaches involve the use of mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells that are isolated from mouse embryos at about four days following fertilization. In the first approach, homologous recombination, artificial DNA with flanking sequences that are homologous (identical) to those occurring upstream and downstream of the target gene DNA sequence is introduced into the nucleus of a mouse ES cell. The ES cell recognizes the homologous flanking sequences and exchanges the existing target gene DNA for segments of the foreign DNA. The foreign DNA, however, is inactive. Thus, its incorporation into the ES cell genome inactivates, or knocks out, the target gene. The foreign DNA typically is engineered to carry a reporter gene, which marks or tags the location of the existing gene, enabling researchers to track its presence in the mouse cell genome as the cells replicate. Homologous recombination is the method of choice when it is required that a specific allele (gene) be replaced by an engineered DNA sequence without affecting any other genes in the genome.

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Gene trapping also makes use of artificial DNA that carries a reporter gene. However, rather than targeting a specific gene, the foreign DNA is randomly incorporated into any gene in the mouse ES cell genome. The foreign sequence prevents the disrupted gene from encoding its protein products, thereby rendering the gene inactive. Activation of the reporter gene upon incorporation into the ES cell genome enables researchers to track gene activity and deduce the disrupted gene’s function.

Artificial DNA sequences typically are introduced into mouse ES cells using a retrovirus or other viral vector, and the modified ES cells are then grown in cell cultures. After a few days, the cells are injected into early mouse embryos, which subsequently are implanted into the uterus of a surrogate female, where they eventually develop and are carried to term. The mouse pups born in this manner contain both modified and nonmodified tissue and thus are not complete knockout mice. In order to generate a pair of true knockout mice (homologous knockouts), the mice must be bred over several generations. Initially, the animals are crossbred with other mice to produce heterozygote individuals (mice with one copy of the target gene); heterozygote animals are then interbred to produce homozygotes.

Applications

Homologous recombination and gene trapping allow researchers to study mammalian physiology in great depth. Knockout mouse models also give a better understanding of the role of similar genes involved in human diseases. Knockout mouse models have been developed for multiple human diseases and disorders, including arthritis, atherosclerosis, cancer, cystic fibrosis, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, Parkinson disease, and thalassemia. The specific targeting of genes with homologous recombination has shed light on the role of numerous genes involved in fetal development and has helped advanced understanding of the causes of different human congenital disorders. The involvement of genes in mammalian organ development and establishment of body plan has been studied thoroughly, owing largely to the development of knockout mice. Knockout animal models also have provided a platform on which to develop and test novel drug therapies.

There are limitations, however, to homologous recombination and gene trapping. For about 15 percent of genes, inactivation via targeted knockout is lethal, preventing altered embryos from developing into adult mice. Thus, the functions of those genes cannot be studied to the full extent, and their roles in human biology and disease cannot be established through knockout approaches in animals. In some cases, the genes play different roles in embryological stages and adulthood. Furthermore, knocking out a gene may not produce any phenotypic change, and the changes observed in mouse models may be quite different from those observed in humans when the same gene is inactivated in both species.

Despite the drawbacks, homologous recombination and gene trapping have proven to be highly effective means for studying gene function in living animals. The successful production of a wide array of knockout mouse models has resulted in the generation of a vast pool of knowledge that has aided advances in the treatment and prevention of human disease.