Branching of the shoot

The shoots of most vascular plants branch according to a consistent plan, with each new axis arising in the angle between a leaf and a stem—that is, in a leaf axil. In some plants, buds may also form from the older parts of shoot or root remote from the main apices; these buds, termed adventitious, do not conform to the general plan.

A lateral shoot apex is initiated on the flanks of the main apex but at some distance below the point of emergence of the youngest leaf primordium. As in the origin of a leaf, generally the outer cell layers contribute to the surface tissues of the new apex by maintaining a consistent pattern of divisions. In some species a tunica of more than one cell layer quickly forms, so that the new apex appears as a miniature version of the main one; alternatively, the differentiation may not become apparent until the new primordium has attained considerable bulk. In all cases, the new apex must reach a minimal volume before it in turn can begin to form its own lateral primordia and to organize true axillary buds. As this volume is attained, zonation appears. As in the main apex, the formation of new primordia is associated with the annular zone.

From this point on, the development of the lateral shoot is the same as that of the main shoot, except that growth may not be as rapid because the main apex, or leading bud, dominates and absorbs much of the available nutrient. The early growth of the axillary bud proceeds quite vigorously until a certain number of leaf primordia has been formed; then apical activity slows. Cell division gradually stops, and with it the associated syntheses; thus there is no increase in the DNA of the nuclei of the meristem after the last division. The bud, in effect, passes into a state of dormancy, even though the external conditions for growth are propitious. This phenomenon is known as correlative bud inhibition, since it is determined by the activity of the leading bud of the shoot. If the leading bud is removed, the inhibited lateral buds resume growth, and with it the associated syntheses.

Vascular development

Cell division planes in the zone just below the apex of the shoot tend to be oriented so that vertical files of cells are formed. This is more evident in the central core than in the surrounding cortical region, for the pattern is not disturbed by the insertion of lateral members. The first signs of the differentiation of the vascular system appear some distance below the apex, in a zone of tissue distinguishable by the smaller cross-sectional area of individual cells. These cells, forming the procambium zone, arise by divisions oriented at right angles to the axis and may form a complete cylinder; generally, however, interruptions occur, the segments being related to the uppermost leaf primordia. In a dicotyledon such as tobacco, the cylinder at its highest level consists of strands running upward toward the points of insertion of the primordia. Thus, as the site of each primordium is determined, a strand forming in the adjacent region of the stem will contribute to the cylinder, but at a higher level than the preceding strand. The link with the earlier formed procambium is not simple, however. The strand passing upward toward a leaf primordium usually is composed of branches arising from strands that enter the two nearest older leaves below it. Because it in turn will contribute a branch for the next leaf, the cylinder is really a hollow network, the “gaps,” or leaf traces, marking the points of departure of the leaf veins.

During subsequent development, the strands, or vascular bundles, increase in thickness by further cell divisions, and connections form with the vascular systems of axillary buds. The cells differentiate to give the characteristic tissues of the vascular system: phloem vessels (conducting tissue), phloem parenchyma (packing tissue), and phloem fibres (supporting tissue) toward the outside and xylem vessels (woody conducting tissue) toward the inside. The differentiation occurs in an upward direction, so that the maturation of the vascular tissues follows at a more or less constant distance behind the apex.

Although details differ, the above account of the origin of the primary vascular system is broadly applicable to gymnosperms and many ferns. Vascular development differs somewhat in certain flowering plants. In many monocotyledons, such as maize, the several vascular strands that pass down from each leaf primordium into the stem do not contribute to a single cylinder but are scattered in the ground tissue, or parenchyma, of the stem. Lateral interconnections form principally at the nodes.

Increase in stem diameter is accomplished in the older stems of dicotyledons by the activity of the cambium, which produces secondary vascular tissue. This meristem, a relic of the procambium, is composed of thin-walled cells, is flattened in the radial plane, and persists between primary vascular tissue, the differentiated outer phloem, and the inner xylem. When secondary thickening begins, the parenchymatous cells between the vascular bundles also resume division, ultimately forming a cambium cylinder. The cells of the cambium divide, producing initial phloem cells toward the outside and initial xylem cells within. Files of cells are also cut off among the initial phloem and xylem cells that remain parenchymatous and are called phloem and xylem rays.

As in the apical meristem, the number of dividing cells in the cambium remains constant, except that more cells occasionally are added by divisions in the radial plane so that the girth of the cambial cylinder expands in pace with the growth of the xylem within. The addition of new phloem toward the outside compresses the primary phloem and the cortical tissues in a radial direction while stretching them tangentially. These primary tissues do not persist, however. As the girth of the stem increases, the epidermis is disrupted, and the outer layers of the cortex become meristematic, giving rise to the cork cambium, which generates cork cells on the outside. The cork layer, or bark, then takes over the protective function of the epidermis.