Immunoglobulins and antibodies

Antibodies, proteins that combat foreign substances in the body, are associated with the globulin fraction of the immune serum. As stated previously, when the serum globulins are separated into α-, β-, and γ- fractions, antibodies are associated with the γ-globulins. Antibodies can be purified by precipitation with the antigen (i.e., the foreign substance) that caused their formation, followed by separation of the antigen-antibody complex. Antibodies prepared in this way consist of a mixture of many similar antibody molecules, which differ in molecular weight, amino acid composition, and other properties. The same differences are found in the γ-globulins of normal blood serums. The γ-globulin of normal blood serum is thought to consist of a mixture of hundreds of different γ-globulins, each of which occurs in amounts too small for isolation. Because the physical and chemical properties of normal γ-globulins are the same as those of antibodies, the γ-globulins are frequently called immunoglobulins. They may be considered to be antibodies against unknown antigens. If solutions of γ-globulin are resolved by gel filtration through dextran, the first fraction has a molecular weight of 900,000. This fraction is called IgM or γM; Ig is an abbreviation for immunoglobulin and M for macroglobulin. The next two fractions are IgA (γA) and IgG (γG), with molecular weights of about 320,000 and 150,000 respectively. Two other immunoglobulins, known as IgD and IgE, have also been detected in much smaller amounts in some immune sera.

The bulk of the immunoglobulins is found in the IgG fraction, which also contains most of the antibodies. The IgM molecules are apparently pentamers—aggregates of five of the IgG molecules. Electron microscopy shows their five subunits to be linked to each other by disulfide bonds in the form of a pentagon. The IgA molecules are found principally in milk and in secretions of the intestinal mucosa. Some of them contain, in addition to a dimer of IgG, a “secretory piece” that enables the passage of IgA molecules between tissue and fluid; the structure of the secretory piece is not yet known. The IgM and IgA immunoglobulins and antibodies contain 10 to 15 percent carbohydrate; the carbohydrate content of the IgG molecules is 2 to 3 percent.

IgG molecules treated with the enzyme papain split into three fragments of almost identical molecular weight of 50,000. Two of these, called Fab fragments, are identical; the third is abbreviated Fc. Reduction to sulfhydryl groups of some of the disulfide bonds of IgG results in the formation of two heavy, or H, chains (molecular weight 55,000) and two light, or L, chains (molecular weight 22,000). They are linked by disulfide bonds in the order L―H―H―L. Each H chain contains four intrachain disulfide bonds, and each L chain contains two.

Antibody preparations of the IgG type, even after removal of IgM and IgA antibodies, are heterogeneous. The H and L chains consist of a large number of different L chains and a variety of H chains. Pure IgG, IgM, and IgA immunoglobulins, however, occur in the blood serum of patients suffering from myelomas, which are malignant tumours of the bone marrow. The tumours produce either an IgG, an IgM, or an IgA protein, but rarely more than one class. A protein called the Bence-Jones protein, which is found in the urine of patients suffering from myeloma tumours, is identical with the L chains of the myeloma protein. Each patient has a different Bence-Jones protein; no two of the more than 100 Bence-Jones proteins that have been analyzed thus far are identical. It is thought that one lymphoid cell among hundreds of thousands becomes malignant and multiplies rapidly, forming the mass of a myeloma tumour that produces one γ-globulin.

Analyses of the Bence-Jones proteins have revealed that the L chains of humans and other mammals are of two quite different types, kappa (κ) and lambda (λ). Both consist of approximately 220 amino acids. The N–terminal halves of κ- and λ-chains are variable, differing in each Bence-Jones protein. The C–terminal halves of these same L chains have a constant amino acid sequence of either the κ- or the λ-type. The fact that one half of a peptide chain is variable and the other half invariant is contradictory to the view that the amino acid sequence of each peptide chain is determined by one gene. Evidently, two genes, one of them variable, the other invariant, fuse to form the gene for the single peptide chain of the L chains. Whereas the normal human L chains are always mixtures of the κ- and λ-types, the H chains of IgG, IgM, and IgA are different. They have been designated as gamma (γ), mu (μ), and alpha (α) chains, respectively. The N-terminal quarter of the H chains has a variable amino acid sequence; the C-terminal three-quarters of the H chains have a constant amino acid sequence.

Some of the amino acid sequences in the L and H chains are transmitted from generation to generation. As a result, the constant portion of the human L chains of the κ-type has in position 191 either valine or leucine. They correspond to two alleles (character-determining portions) of a gene; the two types are called allotypes. The valine-containing genetic type has been designated as InV(a⁺), the leucine-containing type as InV(b⁺). Many more allotypes, called Gm allotypes, have been found in the gamma chains of the human IgG immunoglobulins; more than 20 Gm allotypes are known. Certain combinations of Gm types occur. For example, the combination of Gm types 5, 6, and 11 has been found in Caucasians and African Americans but not in Chinese; the combination of 1, 2, and 17 has not been found in African Americans; and the combination of 1, 4, and 17 has not been found in Caucasians. Allotypes have also been discovered to occur in a number of other animals, including rabbits and mice.

It is understandable from the occurrence of a large number of allotypes that antibodies, even if produced in response to a single antigen, are mixtures of different allotypes. The existence of several classes of antibodies, of different allotypes, and of adaptation of the variable portions of antibodies to different regions of an antigen molecule results in a multiplicity of antibody molecules even if only a single antigen is administered. For this reason it has not yet been possible to unravel the amino acid sequence in the variable portion of antibody molecules. Much of the amino acid sequence in the constant regions of the L and H chains of humans and rabbit immunoglobulins, however, has been resolved.