sensory neuron

sensory neuron, nerve cell that carries information about changes in external and internal environments to the central nervous system (CNS). Such neurons are part of the peripheral nervous system, which lies outside the brain and spinal cord. They collect information from so-called sensory receptors, which are located in specialized tissues of the ears, eyes, mouth, nose, skin, and internal organs. In general, sensory neurons are described as afferent (carrying information to the CNS), whereas motor neurons are described as efferent (carrying information away from the CNS).

Information from a sensory neuron is transmitted to the CNS in the form of an action potential, a brief reversal of electric polarization of the membrane of a neuron or a muscle cell. The information flows across a synapse, or junction between neurons. In a few cases, sensory neurons communicate directly with motor neurons via synapses, allowing for a very fast reflex response. In most cases, however, sensory neurons communicate with interneurons in the CNS before a response is sent back to the body.

Sensory neurons may be categorized as peripheral or visceral. Peripheral sensory neurons are activated by stimuli external to the body, such as light, touch, sound, scent, or taste. Visceral sensory neurons respond to stimuli that originate within the body, such as pain, blood pressure, hunger, or inflammation. The body’s response to visceral sensory information allows it to maintain homeostasis (the self-regulation of physical systems that are necessary for survival).

Like other types of neurons, each sensory neuron has a cell body and projections (dendrites and axons) that gather and transmit information. The cell bodies of sensory neurons are often clustered into ganglia, which are located outside the CNS. The specific shapes and sizes of sensory neurons vary according to their function. Many sensory neurons are pseudounipolar; that is, each has one projection from the cell body that branches into two axons—one axon projecting to the periphery of the body and the other toward the CNS. Other sensory neurons are bipolar, each having two projections departing the cell body—one gathering information and the other passing information to other cells. In addition, many sensory neurons are enclosed in myelin, a coating consisting primarily of fatty materials that increases the speed of signaling along the axon. The layer of myelin varies in thickness, and it may be absent altogether.

Sensory neurons can be affected by diseases and disorders, such that affected individuals lose access to information about their external or internal environment. For example, humans rely on three types of cones (the light-sensitive cells in the retina of the eye that function in the perception of colour) to sense the full range of colours. In certain forms of colour blindness, however, only one or two types of cones are functional, resulting in a reduction of sensory information about colour in affected individuals’ environment. Another example of sensory impairment is hearing loss caused by repeated exposure to extremely loud noise that damages sensory receptors in the inner ear. Damage to auditory sensory neurons or to the temporal lobes of the brain, which normally process auditory information, can also result in hearing loss.

When sensory neurons become nonfunctional, the brain may adapt through a process known as neuroplasticity. For example, individuals who are blind from an early age can learn to use biosonar, or echolocation, to sense objects (similarly to bats). In this case, echoes are detected by auditory receptors and sensory neurons, but they are processed in the occipital lobe of the brain, which normally integrates visual, rather than auditory, information. Thus, individuals who are blind but who learn to employ biosonar can use auditory information to create mental images of their surroundings.