trophic cascade

trophic cascade, an ecological phenomenon triggered by the addition or removal of top predators and involving reciprocal changes in the relative populations of predator and prey through a food chain, which often results in dramatic changes in ecosystem structure and nutrient cycling.

In a three-level food chain, an increase (or decrease) in carnivores causes a decrease (or increase) in herbivores and an increase (or decrease) in primary producers such as plants and phytoplankton. For example, in eastern North America the removal of wolves (Canis lupus) has been associated with an increase in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and a decline in plants eaten by the deer. American zoologist Robert Paine coined the term trophic cascade in 1980 to describe reciprocal changes in food webs caused by experimental manipulations of top predators. In the 1980s others used the term to describe changes in aquatic ecosystems arising from factors such as sudden increases in predatory fish populations from stocking or dramatic declines in predatory fishes caused by overfishing.

Effects on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems

During the 1980s and ’90s a series of experiments demonstrated trophic cascades by adding or removing top carnivores, such as bass (Micropterus) and yellow perch (Perca flavescens), to or from freshwater lakes. Those experiments showed that trophic cascades controlled biomass and production of phytoplankton, recycling rates of nutrients, the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus available to phytoplankton, activity of bacteria, and sedimentation rates. Because trophic cascades affected the rates of primary production and respiration by the lake as a whole, they affected rates of exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the lake and the atmosphere.

Research in a wide variety of terrestrial and aquatic environments has shown that trophic cascades control species composition, biomass, and production of herbivores and plants. For example, overfishing of cod (Gadus morhua) and other commercially exploited fishes such as haddock (Melanogrammus) and hake (Urophycis, Raniceps, and Phycis) in the North Atlantic Ocean led to an increase in small pelagic (open ocean) fish consumed by cod, snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio), and shrimp. As a result, populations of large-bodied herbivorous zooplankton, which are consumed by small pelagic fishes, decreased, which in turn led to an increase in the phytoplankton. Restoration of wolves to the Bow Valley of Alberta, Canada, decreased the population of elk (Cervus elaphus) and increased the growth of aspen (Populus) and willow (Salix). In another example, the commercial harvesting of sea otters (Enhydra lutris) for the fur trade off the west coast of North America triggered an increase in sea urchins and a decline in kelp forests, because of kelp consumption by the urchins, in nearby marine environments.

Traditionally, plant production and nutrient cycling were thought to be controlled by physical or chemical factors, such as solar radiation, climate, and nutrient supply. While physical and chemical factors are important, producer communities and their metabolic rates are also influenced by trophic cascades.

Ecosystems without top predators

In many instances, trophic cascades have been initiated by human persecution and harvesting of top carnivores, such as wolves and big cats in terrestrial ecosystems and sharks, tunas, and game fish in aquatic ecosystems. The removal of top carnivores triggers significant effects on prey populations, primary producers, and ecosystem processes. Therefore, the conservation of top carnivores helps to preserve the structure and processes of ecosystems in which these predators live. The normal functioning of ecosystems provides many services used by people, including food, fibre, and freshwater supplies as well as processes that maintain the quality of air, water, and soil. The preservation or restoration of top carnivores, however, is sometimes controversial because of the risk such predators pose to people, livestock, or pets.

Mesopredator release, a phenomenon in which the populations of medium-sized predators rapidly increase and play greater roles in the ecosystems they inhabit, is caused by the removal of top carnivores. Mesopredators compete poorly with and may be consumed by top carnivores and thus tend to avoid them. The systematic decline of cougars (Puma concolor) and wolves in the conterminous United States and other parts of North America during the 20th century allowed populations of mesopredators such as coyotes (Canis latrans), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), and raccoons (Procyon lotor) to increase, as food sources, hunting grounds, den sites, and other resources once controlled by top carnivores became available. The decline of leopards (Panthera pardus) in some parts of Africa allowed baboon (Papio) populations to increase. The loss of large sharks in the oceans allowed smaller-bodied sharks and rays to increase. In each case, mesopredator release caused a decline in species consumed by the mesopredator.

In addition, some mesopredators have become nuisance species. Foraging raccoons plunder trash cans and gardens in many urban areas and are noted carriers of the rabies virus. Baboons can invade homes, break into cars to steal food, and in some cases pose a threat to children.

Biomanipulation in lakes

In lakes, trophic cascades are used to improve water quality through biomanipulation, a management practice in which humans intentionally remove whole species from ecosystems. The goal of biomanipulation is to reduce the concentration of harmful phytoplankton, such as toxic blue-green algae. The most direct method to control harmful phytoplankton blooms is to reduce inputs of nutrients such as phosphorus that drive their growth. In cases where the arrival of nutrients to the ecosystem is delayed or slow to develop, biomanipulation can be used to hasten the decline of harmful phytoplankton. The stocking of game fish (or their protection from harvest using special regulations) triggers a trophic cascade with decreases in the biomass of smaller-bodied fish, increases in the biomass of herbivorous zooplankton, and decreases in the biomass of harmful phytoplankton. In some cases plankton-eating fish have been removed directly by lake managers. In addition, the removal of bottom-feeding fish from shallow lakes leads to increases in rooted vegetation and increased water clarity as the rooted plants stabilize the sediments. This transition involves a trophic cascade, as herbivorous zooplankton increase in biomass and consume phytoplankton, but also involves the direct effects of rooted vegetation on sediment stability and nutrient cycling.