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This marble portrait of the Roman emperor Augustus, created between ad 14 and 37, is housed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.
Photograph by philophilosopher. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, Rogers Fund, 1908 (08.258.47)Augustus, originally named Gaius Octavius, is born in Velitrae, southeast of Rome. His father (who will die in 59 bc) is a Roman senator. His mother is a niece of Julius Caesar.
46 bc
Octavius accompanies Caesar, now dictator, in his triumphal procession after his victory in Africa over his opponents in the Roman civil war.
44 bc
Caesar is murdered. Octavius, who is completing his academic and military studies in Apollonia (now Albania), returns to Italy. He discovers that his great-uncle Caesar had adopted him in his will and made him his chief personal heir. Octavius secures official recognition as Caesar’s adoptive son under the name Gaius Julius Caesar, preferring not to add “Octavianus” in reference to his original surname. (Today, however, he is habitually described as Octavian from this point in his career until the date he assumes the designation Augustus.)
A marble bust of Mark Antony is in the Vatican Museum in Rome.
Alinari/Art Resource, New YorkInitially, Octavian’s chief rivals, Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, reach an agreement with Octavian and form the Second Triumvirate (the first having been an informal compact between Pompey the Great, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Julius Caesar). With this alliance the three receive absolute governing authority.
42 bc
At Philippi (in Greece), the triumvirate prevails against Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, two of Caesar’s assassins. The triumvirate afterward divides up Rome’s territories, Antony controlling the East, Lepidus controlling Africa, and Octavian controlling the West and Italy. Later Antony forms a political and romantic alliance with the Egyptian queen, Cleopatra.
38–36 bc
Octavian marries Livia Drusilla and wins over nobles who had previously supported Antony. The Second Triumvirate is renewed for another five years, although Lepidus is eventually stripped of all power except as chief priest.
With a decisive naval victory over Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium, Octavian became the undisputed master of the Roman world.
National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London, Palmer Collection. Acquired with the assistance of H.M. Treasury, the Caird Fund, the Art Fund, the Pilgrim Trust and the Society for Nautical Research Macpherson Fund.Although Antony controls the eastern provinces, he neglects them to spend time at the court of Cleopatra in Alexandria. Octavian gets the Roman Senate to declare war on Cleopatra and wins a decisive victory over Antony’s fleet in the naval Battle of Actium, fought off the coast of western Greece, in 31 bc. Antony and Cleopatra flee the site of the battle, escaping to Alexandria. Octavian later defeats Antony again in Egypt and seizes Egypt for Rome. Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide in 30 bc. Historians regard the date 31 bc as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.
The Senate awards Octavian the name Augustus (“the exalted one”), and he is known hereafter as Augustus Caesar. Rather than publicly proclaim himself a dictator as his great-uncle Caesar did, Augustus creates a monarchic regime while appearing to maintain republican traditions.
16 bc–ad 9
Augustus starts a campaign of expansion, with his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus the Elder leading the way. The frontier is advanced to Germany, and Drusus commands the occupied territory between the Rhine and Elbe rivers. Drusus dies in 9 bc. Later Tiberius is made equal in constitutional power with his stepfather.
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Lepidus dies, which enables Augustus to finally succeed him as chief priest. Augustus’s friend and longtime supporter Agrippa dies this same year.
Emperor, title designating the sovereign of an empire, conferred originally on rulers of the ancient Roman Empire and on various later European rulers, though the term is also applied descriptively to some non-European monarchs. In republican Rome (c. 509–27 bce), imperator denoted a victorious
Army, a large organized armed force trained for war, especially on land. The term may be applied to a large unit organized for independent action, or it may be applied to a nation’s or ruler’s complete military organization for land warfare. Throughout history, the character and organization of
