Samuel, baron von Pufendorf summary

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Samuel, baron von Pufendorf, (born Jan. 8, 1632, Dorfchemnitz, near Thalheim, Saxony—died Oct. 13, 1694, Berlin), German jurist and historian. The son of a pastor, he left the study of theology for jurisprudence, philosophy, and history. He taught at the Universities of Heidelberg (1661–68) and Lund (1670–77). His Elements of Universal Jurisprudence (1660) and Of the Law and Nature of Nations (1672), which were influenced by Hugo Grotius and Thomas Hobbes, departed from the traditional approach of the medieval theologians to natural law in arguing that there is no such creature as a natural slave—that all men have a right to equality and freedom. His views were attacked by conservative Protestant theologians in Sweden and Germany, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz dismissed him as “a man not a lawyer and scarcely a philosopher at all.” Nevertheless, he was protected by the Swedish government, and he became the official historiographer to Charles XI of Sweden (1677–88) and to the elector of Brandenburg (1688–94).

church and state Summary

Church and state, the concept, largely Christian, that the religious and political powers in society are clearly distinct, though both claim the people’s loyalty. A brief treatment of church and state follows. For full treatment, see Christianity: Church and state. Before the advent of

Rembrandt: Aristotle Contemplating the Bust of Homer

natural law Summary

Natural law, in philosophy, system of right or justice held to be common to all humans and derived from nature rather than from the rules of society, or positive law. There have been several disagreements over the meaning of natural law and its relation to positive law. Aristotle (384–322 bce) held

Sweden Summary

Sweden, country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in northern Europe. The name Sweden was derived from the Svear, or Suiones, a people mentioned as early as 98 ce by the Roman author Tacitus. The country’s ancient name was Svithiod. Stockholm has been the permanent capital since 1523. Sweden

Germany Summary

Germany, country of north-central Europe, traversing the continent’s main physical divisions, from the outer ranges of the Alps northward across the varied landscape of the Central German Uplands and then across the North German Plain. One of Europe’s largest countries, Germany encompasses a wide