photoengraving
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photoengraving, any of several processes for producing printing plates by photographic means. In general, a plate coated with a photosensitive substance is exposed to an image, usually on film; the plate is then treated in various ways, depending upon whether it is to be used in a relief (letterpress) or an intaglio (gravure) printing process.
Engraving is the broad term for the procedure used in making plates, in which printing and nonprinting areas are distinguished by their height with respect to the general plane of the surface, the artistic decoration created by mechanically incising a design into a surface, and the creation of original works of art by tooling or etching an image into the metal (or plastic) surface and transferring the resultant image to paper. For detailed information on these last two subjects, see printmaking. This article is limited to consideration of the procedures whereby a printing surface useful in the production of multiple ink-on-paper images is produced.
The term photoengraving is correctly applied to the procedures discussed here, since the use of light energy, as involved in photographic processes, is essential. A distinction must be made between a relief printing plate, in which the ink-carrying (or image-bearing) surface coincides with the general level of the plate surface, with nonimage portions cut below the surface, and intaglio printing surfaces, in which the ink-carrying image elements are incised into the plate surface. In the first type of printing, a uniform film of ink is distributed over the surface of the plate and transferred from the individual image elements to the receiving paper surface. In the second, the plate is flooded with a low-viscosity (thin) ink, then wiped with a blade (doctor blade) to remove any ink adhering to the surface. The doctoring action leaves the incised intaglio image filled with ink; later, as paper is brought into contact with this image and pressure is applied, surface-tension and capillary-action forces cause the ink to transfer from the plate to the paper.
History of photoengraving
The earliest engraved printing units were wood engravings, in which the nonimage areas of an illustration were removed by carving them from the surface of a flat wood block. The oldest known illustration printed from a wooden block was a Buddhist scroll discovered in 1866, in Korea. While the dating of the print is not exact, it is believed to have been prepared about 750 ce. The Chinese Diamond Sutra, dated 868, incorporates a woodcut title page and text that includes numerous woodcut images.
From these 8th- and 9th-century dates, it is clear that the use of woodcuts (images cut into a surface parallel to the wood grain) and wood-block engravings (images incised into the end grain of an assembled block) antedates the invention of movable type. The earliest extant example of a European print from a wood engraving to which a reliable date may be attributed is a print titled “St. Christopher,” dated 1423, discovered in the library of the Carthusian monastery in Buxheim, Germany. Another authenticated example of 15th-century wood-block printing is the “Apocalypse of St. John,” printed in 1450, after a 14th-century manuscript.
Early etched plates
Plates engraved in wood continued to find use in printing application through the late-medieval and early-modern periods. Plates made of copper, pewter, and other metals were also produced, by a process in which an image in wax or bitumen was drawn on, or transferred to, the surface of the plate and nonimage areas removed by action of appropriate acids.
Preparation of intaglio printing plates by coating a metal plate with an etchant-resistant substance (ground) such as wax, bitumen, or shellac, scratching through this substance (ground) to expose the plate surface, then etching in acids is also a late-medieval European development. This process, however, developed as a medium of artistic expression, rather than a technique for the mass production of printed images.
The first experimental application of light-sensitive materials to the production of printing surfaces was made by Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, of France, an early researcher in lithography who began his experiments in about 1813. He is credited with having produced the first permanent photograph. In 1826 Niepce coated a pewter or copper plate with a photosensitive asphaltum and exposed the surface to bright sunlight through an etching of a portrait, which served as a positive image. Sunlight passing through the background of the etching hardened the asphaltum, while the protected areas, under the inked portion of the etching, were developed in oil of lavender and white petroleum to create an image in exposed metal. This image was then etched into the plate, and from the intaglio image, prints were made on a copperplate press.
Though this basic discovery was of historical importance, it did not bring about the immediate use of photoengraved images for printing, and many other attempts to produce engravings by exploitation of the photosensitivity of various natural compounds were made by experimenters in Europe and the United States. The origin of the modern photoengraving process rests, however, on the report (1839) by a Scottish scientist and inventor, Mungo Ponton, of the light-sensitive properties of certain chromium compounds. But Ponton, who demonstrated the chemical change that occurs when glue containing a compound of chromium is acted upon by light, was not concerned with preparation of printing plates, and it remained for William Henry Fox Talbot, an English pioneer in photography, to propose the use of chromium-treated colloids such as albumin as an etchant-resistant for preparation of intaglio printing surfaces.
Early 19th-century work on production of chemically etched letterpress printing plates antedated, in many instances, the invention of photography. A researcher in Paris developed a process for the preparation of engravings on zinc. His work involved transfer of an image to the zinc plate by mechanical means, using ink or wax, and the removal of the nonprinting areas in a series of etching operations, each of which involved applying a coating of ink to the sidewalls of the etched lines by means of resilient rollers. The ink served to protect the lines of the engraving from the action of the etching acid, so that the printing area was not reduced.