Carbonari

Carbonari, in early 19th-century Italy, members of a secret society (the Carboneria) advocating liberal and patriotic ideas. The group provided the main source of opposition to the conservative regimes imposed on Italy by the victorious allies after the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. Their influence prepared the way for the Risorgimento movement, which resulted in Italian unification (1861).

The origins and even the political program of the Carbonari are matters of conjecture. The group may have begun as a mutual aid society in France and spread to Italy with the Napoleonic army, or it may have been an offshoot of the Freemasons, an anticlerical, philanthropic secret society widespread in the 18th century. The first lodges of the Carbonari were formed in southern Italy in the early 1800s. They acquired a republican and patriotic character, opposing Joachim Murat, the Napoleonic ruler of Naples. The movement spread northward into the Marches and the Romagna by 1814. In general, the Carbonari favoured constitutional and representative government and wished to protect Italian interests against foreigners. But they never had a single program: some wanted a republic, others a limited monarchy; some favoured a federation, others a unitary Italian state.

Like other secret societies of the age, the Carbonari had an initiation ceremony, complex symbols, and a hierarchical organization. Their members were recruited mainly from the nobility, officeholders, and small landowners. After 1815 the lodges spread rapidly among those dissatisfied with the post-Napoleonic settlement, especially among the middle classes, which had been favoured under French rule. Although the Carbonari had lodges throughout Italy, their main centres were in central Italy (the Papal States) and in the south (Naples), where the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was restored in 1815 and where they took up a decisively anti-Bourbon attitude. With the help of the army, they led the successful Neapolitan revolution of 1820, which forced King Ferdinand I to promise a constitution. This was their most spectacular achievement, but Austrian intervention soon nullified it. Revolts in Bologna, Parma, and Modena in 1831 met with little success. In the same year, Giuseppe Mazzini founded a new movement, Young Italy, with an avowedly national and republican program, and the importance of the Carbonari began to wane.

Outside Italy a similar movement called the Charbonnerie had taken root in France. It participated in outbreaks in 1821, and Lafayette himself condescended to be its head. An international organization called the Charbonnerie Démocratique Universelle continued to operate for a few years after 1830 under the leadership of Filippo Buonarroti (1761–1837), but it achieved little.