Later trends in England and the United States

Wittgensteinians

Close students of Wittgenstein’s ideas tended to work chiefly on particular concepts that lie at the core of traditional philosophical problems. As an example of such an investigation, a monograph entitled Intention (1957), by G.E.M. Anscombe, an editor of Wittgenstein’s posthumous works, may be cited as an extended study of what it is for a person to intend to do something and of what the relationship is between his intention and the actions that he performs. This work occupied a central place in a growing literature about human actions, which in turn influenced views about the nature of psychology, of the social sciences, and of ethics. Another student of Wittgenstein, the American philosopher Norman Malcolm, has investigated concepts such as knowledge, certainty, memory, and dreaming. As these topics suggest, Wittgensteinians tended to concentrate on Wittgenstein’s ideas about the nature of mental concepts and to work in the area of philosophical psychology. Typically, they began with classical philosophical theories and attacked them by arguing that they employ some key concept, such as knowledge, in a manner incongruous with the way in which the concept would actually be employed in various situations. Their works thus abound with descriptions of hypothetical, though usually homely, situations and with questions of the form “What would a person say if…?” or “Would one call this a case of X?”

Ordinary language philosophy

After World War II the University of Oxford was the centre of extraordinary philosophical activity; and, although Wittgenstein’s general outlook on philosophy—his turning away, for example, from the notion of formal methods in philosophical analysis—was an important ingredient, many of the Oxford philosophers could not be called Wittgensteinians in the strict sense. The method employed by many of them has often been characterized—especially by critics—as an “appeal to ordinary language,” and they were thus identified as belonging to the school of “ordinary language” philosophy. Exactly what this form of argument is supposed to be and what exemplifies it in the writings of these philosophers has been by no means clear. Gilbert Ryle, Moore’s successor as editor of a leading journal, Mind, was among the most prominent of those analysts who were regarded as using ordinary language as a philosophical tool. Ryle, like Wittgenstein, pointed out the mistake of regarding the mind as what he called “a ghost in a machine” by investigating how people employ a variety of concepts, such as memory, perception, and imagination, that designate “mental” properties. He tried to show that, when philosophers carry out such investigations, they find that, roughly speaking, it is the way people act that leads to the attribution of these properties and that there is no involvement of anything internally private. He also attempted to show how philosophers were led to dualistic conclusions through the use of a wrong model in terms of which to interpret human activities. A dualistic model may be constructed, for example, by wrongly supposing that an intelligently behaving person must be continually utilizing knowledge of facts—knowledge that something is the case. Ryle contended, on the contrary, that much intelligent behaviour is not a matter of knowing that something is the case but of knowing how to do something. Once this difference between “knowing that” and “knowing how” is acknowledged, according to Ryle, there is no temptation to explain the behaviour by looking for a private internal knowledge of facts.

Although Ryle’s objectives were similar to those of Wittgenstein, his results often seemed more behaviouristic. It is true that Ryle did ask, in pursuit of his method, some fairly detailed questions about when a person would say, for example, that someone had been imagining something; but it is by no means clear that he was appealing to ordinary language in the sense of an investigation into how speakers of English use certain expressions. In any case, the charge, often voiced by critics, that this style of philosophizing trivializes and perverts philosophy from its traditional function would probably also have to be leveled against Aristotle, who frequently appealed to “what we would say.”

A powerful philosophical figure among postwar Oxford philosophers was John Austin, who was White’s Professor of Moral Philosophy until his death in 1960. Austin believed that many philosophical theories derive their plausibility from overlooking distinctions—often very fine—between different uses of expressions, and he also thought that philosophers too frequently think that any one of a number of expressions will do just as well for their purposes. (Thus, ignoring the difference between an illusion and a delusion, for example, lends credence to the view that the objects of immediate perception are not physical objects but sense data.) Austin’s work was, in many respects, much closer to the ideal of philosophy as comprising the analysis of concepts than was that of Ryle or Wittgenstein. Austin was also much more concerned with the nature of language itself and with general theories of how it functions. His novel approach, as exemplified in the posthumously published lectures How to Do Things with Words (1962), set a trend that was followed in a sizable literature in the philosophy of language. Austin took the total “speech act” as the starting point of analysis, and this allowed him to make distinctions based not only upon words and their place in a language but also upon points such as the speaker’s intentions in making the utterance and its expected effect on the audience. There was also in Austin’s approach something of the program of Russell and the early Wittgenstein for laying bare the fundamental structure of language. In the 1960s and ’70s, Austin’s theory of speech acts was considerably extended and systematized in work by his American student John Searle.