Foundational issues posed by atomism

Atomism as a metaphysical system

In discussing atomism, one particular system, that of Democritus, has been here distinguished as atomism in the strict sense because of the fact that in no other system have the foundational issues of atomism been so clearly expressed. Atomism in the strict sense is not merely one of the historical forms of atomism, one of the many possible scientific attempts at explaining certain physical phenomena; it is, first of all, a metaphysical system: it has been presented as the only possible explanation of change and multiplicity. And as a metaphysics it is rationalistic, mechanistic, and realistic.

It is rationalistic because it has so much confidence in reason that, in order to explain observed phenomena, it does not hesitate to postulate the existence of unobservable atoms—i.e., of things that are in principle unobservable by the human senses and can be known only by a process of reasoning. Atomists go even further, for they not only are convinced of the existence of atoms but also think it possible to deduce in a rational way their fundamental properties. Moreover, the description of these properties in mechanistic terms is not just a matter of convenience; it is supposed to be the adequate expression of reality.

This rationalistic and mechanistic metaphysics is characteristic not only of Democritus’s atomism but also of the early forms of scientific atomism. The clearest expression of this metaphysics is found in Descartes. For Democritus mechanistic concepts are clear and distinct ideas, so that any further experimental investigation is superfluous. It should be stressed that the atomistic assumption that the human mind, by mere reasoning, can know the properties of the atoms is a necessary consequence of the idea that atoms are not subject to internal change; for the changeless can never be a subject of experimentation. The great weakness of the mechanistic concept of immutable atoms was that it forced the analyzing experiments to stop at the atoms; but this weakness could reveal itself only after, in the course of the further development of science, the fundamentally experimental character of human knowledge had become evident.

This weakness, in fact, was precisely one of the reasons why Aristotle rejected the atomism of Democritus—namely, that the latter had postulated atoms that were not subject to change. For Aristotle the very essence of matter was its being subject to change; hence to him the concept of immutable atoms was a contradiction in terms.

Aristotle’s criticism of atomism was clearly directed against its mechanistic metaphysics, not against its realism. This latter characteristic was the target, however, of an attack launched by the incomparable 18th-century epistemologist Immanuel Kant. In a famous argument, known as the antinomy of the continuum, Kant tried to prove that the acceptance of the reality of spatial extension, the cornerstone of atomism, led to contradictions. His argument can be summarized as follows: It is possible to prove that any compound must be composed of simple things (for if not, there would be nothing but composition). On the other hand, it also is possible to prove that no material thing can be simple, for the very reason that a part of an extended being is always extended and is thus open to division. Hence, every allegedly simple part is at once simple and nonsimple. Consequently, spatial extension cannot be real. Extension is therefore not a property of the material world itself; it is a form imposed upon reality by human perception.

By his argument Kant did not intend to reject atomistic theories as such; he rejected only their realistic pretensions. Kant was deeply convinced that humans had to think of nature by way of analogy with a mechanism, but he denied that knowledge construed in such a fashion could reach reality itself.

In the 19th century scientists were, as a rule, hardly impressed by Kant’s attack on the realistic pretensions of human knowledge. Scientists had already learned to go their own way and no longer worried about philosophical considerations. Only when an internal crisis in science itself arose were they prepared to reflect upon their presuppositions. Such a crisis occurred in the 20th century when science was forced to accept the relativity of both classical models: the wave and the particle.

To a certain extent, the problem of whether a scientific model is nothing but a subjective construct in which the scientist unites his experience is the same as the problem that Kant had in mind. One of the differences, however, is that in Kant’s time science was still rather exclusively theory. Its close connection with praxis (practice, doing) had not yet been discovered. For this reason the Kantian epistemological (or human knowledge) problem could centre on such a question as: What guarantee does the knowing subject have that his “models” of reality reflect reality itself? Inasmuch as, in an exclusively theoretical science, the only contact that one has with reality is afforded by means of one’s knowledge, the problem seems to be insoluble.

The development of science from a theoretical to an experimental discipline has forced philosophy to view the epistemological problem in a new way, for in an experimental science the investigator is in a twofold contact with reality—namely, by his knowledge and by his experimental praxis. Modern atomic theory is one of the best examples to illustrate this point. It was this theory that was most directly confronted with the problem of the realistic value of its models. It could take up this challenge because of the theory’s effectiveness in experimental praxis, which is the final judge of the realistic value of the theoretical models. It has confirmed the audacious rational speculations of ancient atomism, but at the same time it has revealed that, in order to be really effective, reason is in need of experimental assistance.

Ancient Greek atomism versus contemporary scientific atomism

In comparing Greek atomism and modern atomic theories, it should be recalled that in Greek thought philosophy and science still formed a unity. Greek atomism was inspired as much by the desire to find a solution for the problems of mutability and plurality in nature as by the desire to provide scientific explanations for specific phenomena. While it is true that some of the Greek atomists’ ideas can rightly be considered as precursors of later physics, the main importance of the old atomistic doctrines for modern science does not lie in these primitive anticipations. Much more important is the attempt to take seriously the variety and mutability discerned by sense experience and yet to reconcile them with the thesis of Parmenides about the unity and the immutability of matter. In its search for universal and unchangeable laws, modern science is to a great extent inspired by the same idea as Parmenides’, since universal laws presuppose a certain unity in the material world, and unchangeable laws cannot be established without the presupposition that something unchangeable must be hidden behind all changes. By the same token, without this latter presupposition, experiments would not make any sense at all, for, if the diversity of reactions occurring under different conditions is to reveal anything, these reactions must be the expression of an immutable nature. The differences have to indicate something about that which remains the same. The great achievement of the Greek philosophers was, therefore, that they took a general view of nature as a whole that made a scientific attitude possible. To this both the quantitative and the qualitative forms of atomism contributed—the former drawing attention to the mathematical aspects of the problem, the latter to the observational.

A comparison of ancient Greek atomism with scientific atomism merely on the basis of their respective scientific contents would therefore do a great injustice to Greek atomism; it would in fact misjudge its main value. Indeed, such a comparison would also take too narrow a view of modern scientific atomism. It would imply the philosophical irrelevance of the latter. It has here been shown, however, that the later development of the scientific atomic theory has clarified many philosophical problems that, as basic issues, divided atomism in the strict sense from other forms of atomism. To mention only a few examples: the development of the scientific atomic theory has deepened human insights into the relationship between a whole and its components, into the relative character of ultimate particles, and into certain fundamental epistemological problems.

Evaluation of atomism

The success of the atomic theory shows the value of the idea of atomism: the explanation of the complex in terms of aggregates of fixed particles or units. Its history also shows, however, the inherent danger of this idea—namely, that of absolutism. History has corrected this absolutism: the unitary factors have to be conceived as ultimate only with respect to the complex under consideration, and their union into aggregates need not occur only by way of juxtaposition.