capitulation

capitulation, in the history of international law, any treaty whereby one state permitted another to exercise extraterritorial jurisdiction over its own nationals within the former state’s boundaries. The term is to be distinguished from the military term “capitulation,” an agreement for surrender. There was no element of surrender in the early capitulations made by European rulers with the powerful Turkish sultans who were motivated by a desire to avoid the burden of administering justice to foreign merchants. Later capitulations, which in the case of China and other Asian states resulted from military pressure by European states, came to be regarded as (and, in effect, were) humiliating derogations from the sovereignty and equality of these states.

The legal explanation of the practice is to be found in conflicting conceptions of sovereignty and of law. In contrast to the modern conception, which relates sovereignty to territory, early conceptions related it to persons. The sovereignty of the state was held to apply only to its nationals. The privilege of citizenship was too precious to be extended to the resident alien, whose own state thus sought to protect him and exercise jurisdiction over him even when he was living abroad. Therefore, when the numbers, wealth, and power of foreigners residing within a state became such that it was felt politic to subject them to some law, it was naturally held that this law should be their own. This was particularly the case when people from Christian countries were living in countries where the principles of justice were based on non-Christian traditions.

Early examples of extraterritorial rights are to be found in the privileges enjoyed by the Phoenicians in Memphis in the 13th century bc, the guarantees and commercial facilities accorded by Hārūn ar-Rashīd to the Franks in the 9th century ad, and the concessions made to certain Italian city-states by the prince of Antioch and the king of Jerusalem in 1098 and 1123. The Byzantine emperors followed this example, and the system was further continued under the Ottoman sultans. In 1536 a capitulation treaty was signed between Francis I of France and Süleyman I of Turkey that became the model for later treaties with other powers. It allowed the establishment of French merchants in Turkey, granted them individual and religious liberty, and provided that consuls appointed by the French king should judge the civil and criminal affairs of French subjects in Turkey according to French law, with the right of appeal to officers of the sultan for help in carrying out their sentences. During the 18th century nearly every European power obtained capitulations in Turkey, and in the 19th century such newly established countries as the United States, Belgium, and Greece followed suit.

The capitulation system spread widely in the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries, when traders from the West were spreading Western influence by a process of infiltration rather than by annexation. “Unequal treaties” soon developed, and such treaties as the Sino-British supplementary treaty (1843) and its later modifying enactments set up a system of provincial courts and a British supreme court in China to try all cases involving British subjects but granted no corresponding rights to Chinese residents in Britain.

The evils to which the system gave rise were exemplified particularly in Turkey and China. The fact that a foreign consul had jurisdiction in all matters concerning foreign nationals early led to encroachments on Turkish rights of sovereignty, and it was possible for foreign governments to levy duties on goods sold in Turkish ports—e.g., the 2 percent duty established on Venetian goods by the treaty of Adrianople in 1454. Foreign powers were also able to set up banks, post offices, and commercial houses on Turkish soil that were exempt from Turkish taxes and were able to compete with local firms. In both Turkey and China, the existence of capitulations led to the development of a class immune from local jurisdiction—protégés of a foreign power, who, because they were employed by foreigners, claimed partial immunity from their own laws and were particularly useful as pawns in diplomatic intrigue. In China, especially, it was possible for fugitives from Chinese justice to seek sanctuary with foreigners. Then, inevitably, foreigners misused their privileges; their own law was sometimes badly administered, their courts tended to favour their own nationals at the expense of the natives of the countries in which they were living (particularly in China, where there were no mixed courts), and the way was opened for bribery and corruption. In the Chinese treaty ports, a multiplicity of territorial settlements and concessions, practically exempt from local jurisdiction, led inevitably to administrative confusion; each foreign legation had its own, sometimes conflicting, rights.

Inevitably, as the Eastern countries became more conscious of their own sovereignty rights and more resentful of Western domination, agitation began for the ending of capitulatory rights. Turkey formally raised the question of their abrogation in 1856; the United States denied the validity of unilateral abrogation, but the Central Powers formally relinquished their rights in 1919, the Soviet Union spontaneously renounced all such rights in 1921, and, at the peace treaty between the Allies and Turkey signed at Lausanne in 1923, the capitulations were brought to an end. The first country to conclude treaties ending capitulations had been Japan (1899); it was not until 1943 that Great Britain and the United States formally relinquished their rights in China. With that, except for certain arrangements in Muscat and Bahrain, capitulations ceased to exist. Compare extraterritoriality.