diaspora

diaspora, populations, such as members of an ethnic or religious group, that originated from the same place but dispersed to different locations. The word diaspora comes from the ancient Greek dia speiro, meaning “to sow over.” The concept of diaspora has long been used to refer to the Greeks in the Hellenic world and to the Jews after the fall of Jerusalem in the early 6th century bce. Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, scholars began to use it with reference to the African diaspora, and the use of the term was extended further in the following decades.

Evolution of the concept of diaspora

The concept of diaspora did not figure prominently in the social sciences until the late 1960s; the use of the plural form of the word came later still. Notwithstanding its Greek origins, the term formerly referred primarily to the Jewish experience, particularly the expulsion of Jewish people from their homeland to Babylonia (the Babylonian Exile) as well as the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple. The term, then, carried a sense of loss, as the dispersal of the Jewish population was caused by their loss of territory. Nonetheless, since ancient times the concept has also been used in a positive though much less-influential way to refer to the Greek colonization of the Mediterranean lands from the shores of present-day Turkey and Crimea to the Strait of Gibraltar, between the 6th and 4th centuries bce.

Both experiences, rooted in the Western tradition, have constituted stereotypes of diasporas, though other notable cases from the East developed in medieval and modern times. For instance, through China’s long history, the spread of its population has often been perceived as a positive or at least neutral phenomenon, described in an ancient Chinese poem: “Wherever the ocean waves touch, there are overseas Chinese.” India’s influence also expanded, especially throughout the Indian Ocean region, through the settlement of its population beyond its own borders. More generally, worldwide, since the 19th century, the increase in the populations of unskilled labourers migrating to work in agricultural or industrial jobs has drawn particular attention.

Scholars have created various typologies of diasporas. In some reckonings, diasporas may be classified as victim, imperial/colonial, trade, or labour diasporas, according to the main motives for original migration—namely, expulsion, expansion, commercial endeavours, or pursuit of employment, respectively. Other typologies emphasize historical or political factors, such as traditional/historical (Jewish, Greek, Phoenician) or stateless (Palestinian, Roma) diasporas. Most scholars accept that massive population movements since the middle of the 19th century have generated multiple diasporas that became especially visible in the late 20th century. As a world map of the impact of migrations would show, durable expatriate communities have been established around the globe.

Political significance

The basic feature of diasporas is the dispersion from a common origin. This may be, as in the case of the black/African diaspora, a common history and a collective identity that resides more in a shared sociocultural experience than in a specific geographic origin. However, most diasporas have maintained a relationship with the place of origin and between the scattered groups themselves. Because the origins of recent diasporas are existing or potential nation-states, some authors qualify these as ethno-national diasporas to explicitly distinguish them from transnational networks in general that have developed in the context of globalization.

In the early 21st century, an estimated 10 percent of human beings lived in a diasporic situation. The number of individuals with dual citizenship exploded in a short period of time. For example, in the 1980s, four countries in Latin America allowed dual citizenship; by early 2000, the number permitting it had reached 10. Many countries set up organizations, institutions, procedures, and devices of all sorts to reach and capitalize on their expatriates. Financial remittances of migrants (not only first-generation) reached several hundred billion dollars per year and were increasingly channeled for productive collective projects, not just for individual consumption purposes. Another benefit to home countries comes in the form of social remittances: technology transfers, information or knowledge exchanges, and democratic values transmission, for example. Migrants’ and expatriates’ associations burgeoned in many host countries.

The emerging interest of diasporic populations in their countries of origin has led to concerns in host countries regarding possible conflicting loyalties. Some natives may fear a fifth column operating against national interests or suspicious ethnic networks involved in delinquent or terrorist activities. However, host countries have generally been supportive of diasporas and of their organizations. In addition, cooperation through diasporic groups creates opportunities abroad for the receiving countries. In some cases, however, diasporas come from origin countries where their members are not welcome and where free circulation is limited, making cooperation impossible. On the other side, xenophobia and a reluctance to accept foreign people have not disappeared and can spread in crisis situations.

Future perspectives

Diasporas have generally brought about few problems regarding expatriates’ potentially divided loyalties, but when such conflicts arose in the past, expatriates tended to identify with the countries where they lived, worked, and raised children. Today, for the most part, such individuals and groups combine identities, feeling that they belong to both home and host countries and that they can mix both easily in their daily life in a nonexclusive and productive manner.

Many people claim to be living in a diaspora, to be part of a minority, or to have ancestors from a different ethnic group from that of the majority. They attach a positive value to this, viewing it as adding a premium of identity rather than a negative stigmatization. Individuals of the present day are able to keep in touch with relatives and maintain contacts abroad and at home, as well as to remain connected to cultural, cognitive, and symbolic values of remote places. Information and communication technologies have obviously facilitated this new proximity, but host countries’ evolution from homogeneous conceptions of citizenship toward more pluralistic, multiethnic approaches has also been crucial. More than in the past, political and socioeconomic integration may be dissociated from cultural and relational assimilation.