Home Games & Quizzes History & Society Science & Tech Biographies Animals & Nature Geography & Travel Arts & Culture Money Videos
formal logic
Table of Contents
References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics
Images
Alfred North Whitehead
Discover
Solar Eclipse, Eclipse, Solar Flare, Outer Space, Astronomy
What Causes Lunar and Solar Eclipses?
Artist interpretation of a Space meteoroid impact. Meteor impact. Asteroid, End of the world, danger, destruction, dinosaur extinct, Judgement Day, Planet Earth, Doomsday Predictions, comet
10 Failed Doomsday Predictions
Two chicks near an egg with a white background (poultry, chick, chickens, birds).
What Do Eggs Have to Do with Easter?
Black widow spider
9 of the World’s Deadliest Spiders
Albert Einstein in Washington, D.C. c. 1921-1923. Physicist
The Solar Eclipse That Made Albert Einstein a Science Celebrity
Solar eclipse of the sun.
The Sun Was Eaten: 6 Ways Cultures Have Explained Eclipses
Aphrodite. Greek mythology. Sculpture. Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love and beauty.
12 Greek Gods and Goddesses

The predicate calculus

Propositions may also be built up, not out of other propositions but out of elements that are not themselves propositions. The simplest kind to be considered here are propositions in which a certain object or individual (in a wide sense) is said to possess a certain property or characteristic; e.g., “Socrates is wise” and “The number 7 is prime.” Such a proposition contains two distinguishable parts: (1) an expression that names or designates an individual and (2) an expression, called a predicate, that stands for the property that that individual is said to possess. If x, y, z, … are used as individual variables (replaceable by names of individuals) and the symbols ϕ (phi), ψ (psi), χ (chi), … as predicate variables (replaceable by predicates), the formula ϕx is used to express the form of the propositions in question. Here x is said to be the argument of ϕ; a predicate (or predicate variable) with only a single argument is said to be a monadic, or one-place, predicate (variable). Predicates with two or more arguments stand not for properties of single individuals but for relations between individuals. Thus the proposition “Tom is a son of John” is analyzable into two names of individuals (“Tom” and “John”) and a dyadic or two-place predicate (“is a son of”), of which they are the arguments; and the proposition is thus of the form ϕxy. Analogously, “… is between … and …” is a three-place predicate, requiring three arguments, and so on. In general, a predicate variable followed by any number of individual variables is a wff of the predicate calculus. Such a wff is known as an atomic formula, and the predicate variable in it is said to be of degree n, if n is the number of individual variables following it. The degree of a predicate variable is sometimes indicated by a superscript—e.g., ϕxyz may be written as ϕ3xyz; ϕ3xy would then be regarded as not well formed. This practice is theoretically more accurate, but the superscripts are commonly omitted for ease of reading when no confusion is likely to arise.

Atomic formulas may be combined with truth-functional operators to give formulas such as ϕx ∨ ψy [example: “Either the customer (x) is friendly (ϕ) or else John (y) is disappointed (ψ)”]; ψxy ⊃ ∼ψx [example: “If the road (x) is above (ϕ) the flood line (y), then the road is not wet (∼ψ)”]; and so on. Formulas so formed, however, are valid when and only when they are substitution-instances of valid wffs of PC and hence in a sense do not transcend PC. More interesting formulas are formed by the use, in addition, of quantifiers. There are two kinds of quantifiers: universal quantifiers, written as “(∀   )” or often simply as “(   ),” where the blank is filled by a variable, which may be read, “For all   ”; and existential quantifiers, written as “(∃   ),” which may be read, “For some   ” or “There is a    such that.” (“Some” is to be understood as meaning “at least one.”) Thus, (∀x)ϕx is to mean “For all x, x is ϕ” or, more simply, “Everything is ϕ”; and (∃x)ϕx is to mean “For some x, x is ϕ” or, more simply, “Something is ϕ” or “There is a ϕ.” Slightly more complex examples are (∀x)(ϕx ⊃ ψx) for “Whatever is ϕ is ψ,” (∃x)(ϕx · ψx) for “Something is both ϕ and ψ,” (∀x)(∃y)ϕxy for “Everything bears the relation ϕ to at least one thing,” and (∃x)(∀y)ϕxy for “There is something that bears the relation ϕ to everything.” To take a concrete case, if ϕxy means “x loves y” and the values of x and y are taken to be human beings, then the last two formulas mean, respectively, “Everybody loves somebody” and “Somebody loves everybody.”

Intuitively, the notions expressed by the words some and every are connected in the following way: to assert that something has a certain property amounts to denying that everything lacks that property (for example, to say that something is white is to say that not everything is nonwhite); and, similarly, to assert that everything has a certain property amounts to denying that there is something that lacks it. These intuitive connections are reflected in the usual practice of taking one of the quantifiers as primitive and defining the other in terms of it. Thus ∀ may be taken as primitive, and ∃ introduced by the definition (∃a)α =Df ∼(∀a)∼α, in which a is any variable and α is any wff; alternatively, ∃ may be taken as primitive, and ∀ introduced by the definition (∀a)α =Df ∼(∃a)∼α.

The lower predicate calculus

A predicate calculus in which the only variables that occur in quantifiers are individual variables is known as a lower (or first-order) predicate calculus. Various lower predicate calculi have been constructed. In the most straightforward of these, to which the most attention will be devoted in this discussion and which subsequently will be referred to simply as LPC, the wffs can be specified as follows: Let the primitive symbols be (1) x, y, … (individual variables), (2) ϕ, ψ, …, each of some specified degree (predicate variables), and (3) the symbols ∼, ∨, ∀, (, and ). An infinite number of each type of variable can now be secured as before by the use of numerical subscripts. The symbols ·, ⊃, and ≡ are defined as in PC, and ∃ as explained above. The formation rules are:

  1. An expression consisting of a predicate variable of degree n followed by n individual variables is a wff.
  2. If α is a wff, so is ∼α.
  3. If α and β are wffs, so is (α ∨ β).
  4. If α is a wff and a is an individual variable, then (∀a)α is a wff. (In such a wff, α is said to be the scope of the quantifier.)

If a is any individual variable and α is any wff, every occurrence of a in α is said to be bound (by the quantifiers) when occurring in the wffs (∀a)α and (∃a)α. Any occurrence of a variable that is not bound is said to be free. Thus, in (∀x)(ϕx ∨ ϕy) the x in ϕx is bound, since it occurs within the scope of a quantifier containing x, but y is free. In the wffs of a lower predicate calculus, every occurrence of a predicate variable (ϕ, ψ, χ, … ) is free. A wff containing no free individual variables is said to be a closed wff of LPC. If a wff of LPC is considered as a proposition form, instances of it are obtained by replacing all free variables in it by predicates or by names of individuals, as appropriate. A bound variable, on the other hand, indicates not a point in the wff where a replacement is needed but a point (so to speak) at which the relevant quantifier applies.

For example, in ϕx, in which both variables are free, each variable must be replaced appropriately if a proposition of the form in question (such as “Socrates is wise”) is to be obtained; but in (∃x)ϕx, in which x is bound, it is necessary only to replace ϕ by a predicate in order to obtain a complete proposition (e.g., replacing ϕ by “is wise” yields the proposition “Something is wise”).

Validity in LPC

Intuitively, a wff of LPC is valid if and only if all its instances are true—i.e., if and only if every result of replacing each of its free variables appropriately and uniformly is a true proposition. A formal definition of validity in LPC to express this intuitive notion more precisely can be given as follows: for any wff of LPC, any number of LPC models can be formed. An LPC model has two elements. One is a set, D, of objects, known as a domain. D may contain as many or as few objects as one chooses, but it must contain at least one, and the objects may be of any kind. The other element, V, is a system of value assignments satisfying the following conditions. To each individual variable there is assigned some member of D (not necessarily a different one in each case). Assignments are next made to the predicate variables in the following way: if ϕ is monadic, there is assigned to it some subset of D (possibly the whole of D); intuitively this subset can be viewed as the set of all the objects in D that have the property ϕ. If ϕ is dyadic, there is assigned to it some set of ordered pairs (i.e., pairs of objects of which one is marked out as the first and the other as the second) drawn from D; intuitively these can be viewed as all the pairs of objects in D in which the relation ϕ holds between the first object in the pair and the second. In general, if ϕ is of degree n, there is assigned to it some set of ordered n-tuples (groups of n objects) of members of D. It is then stipulated that an atomic formula is to have the value 1 in the model if the members of D assigned to its individual variables form, in that order, one of the n-tuples assigned to the predicate variable in it; otherwise, it is to have the value 0. Thus, in the simplest case, ϕx will have the value 1 if the object assigned to x is one object in the set of objects assigned to ϕ; and, if it is not, then ϕx will have the value 0. The values of truth functions are determined by the values of their arguments, as in PC. Finally, the value of (∀x)α is to be 1 if both (1) the value of α itself is 1 and (2) α would always still have the value 1 if a different assignment were made to x but all the other assignments were left precisely as they were; otherwise (∀x)α is to have the value 0. Since ∃ can be defined in terms of ∀, these rules cover all the wffs of LPC. A given wff may of course have the value 1 in some LPC models but the value 0 in others. But a valid wff of LPC may now be defined as one that has the value 1 in every LPC model. If 1 and 0 are viewed as representing truth and falsity, respectively, then validity is defined as truth in every model.

Although the above definition of validity in LPC is quite precise, it does not yield, as did the corresponding definition of PC validity in terms of truth tables, an effective decision procedure. It can, indeed, be shown that no generally applicable decision procedure for LPC is possible—i.e., that LPC is not a decidable system. This does not mean that it is never possible to prove that a given wff of LPC is valid—the validity of an unlimited number of such wffs can in fact be demonstrated—but it does mean that in the case of LPC, unlike that of PC, there is no general procedure, stated in advance, that would enable one to determine, for any wff whatever, whether it is valid or not.