Respiration
Two types of respiratory organs are found among arachnids: book lungs and tracheae. Book lungs are found in hardened pockets generally located on the underside of the abdomen. Diffusion of gases occurs between the hemolymph circulating within thin leaflike structures (lamellae) stacked like pages in a book within the pocket and the air in spaces between these thin structures. The tracheal system consists of a number of tubes that open to the exterior by paired respiratory pores (spiracles) and is similar to that of insects. Diffusion of gases occurs within small fluid-filled tubes that ramify over the internal organs. Scorpions, tailless whip scorpions, and whip scorpions rely upon book lungs. Pseudoscorpions, sunspiders, ricinuleids, daddy longlegs, and mites and ticks have only tracheae. Most spiders have both, and small micro whip scorpions and some extremely small mites have only cutaneous respiration.
Circulatory system
The circulatory system of the arachnids is an open system with hemolymph circulating in tissue sinuses. Special venous channels conduct hemolymph from the tissues to the heart, from which it is pumped through a series of blood vessels back to the sinuses. The respiratory pigment usually is hemocyanin and is in solution in the hemolymph. Although cells are present in the hemolymph, they do not carry oxygen.
Reproductive system
There is considerable variation in the number and appearance of both ovaries and testes. In general, the ovaries are associated with oviducts, and the testes have vasa deferentia. The genital orifice of both sexes is on the undersurface of the second abdominal segment, although in some mites it may be dorsal. Sperm are usually transferred to a special structure of the female, called the spermatheca.
Glands and toxins
The glands of arachnids are usually peculiar to individual orders. In spiders, silk is stored as a viscous liquid in the silk glands, which are located within the abdomen. The number of spinnerets, through which the glandular material is extruded, is variable. The viscous liquid, a protein, passes through minute tubes at the tips of the spinnerets and changes from liquid to solid thread. A structural rearrangement of the protein molecules occurs as the silk is drawn from a silk droplet. The silk of the pseudoscorpions is produced by a spinneret located on a movable projection of the chelicerae. The few mites that produce silk have glands in the area of the mouth.
Toxic substances are secreted by special glands found in the chelicerae of spiders, in the pedipalps of false scorpions, and in the poison glands of scorpions. These substances and their effects differ even within species of the same order. The strongly alkaline poison of spiders is much less poisonous to mammals than to arthropods. Bites of spiders of the genera Loxosceles (brown recluse) and Latrodectus (black widow) may cause human discomfort, while those of the widows may cause serious illness. The venom of most scorpions, sufficiently toxic to kill most invertebrates, usually is not dangerous to humans. However, the venoms of some scorpion genera (Androctonus and Buthus of Africa, various species of Centruroides of Mexico, Arizona, and New Mexico) are highly toxic nerve poisons. The toxicity of the venom of pseudoscorpions is not known. The paired glands located near the anus of whip scorpions secrete specific acids (formic acid and acetic acid) that serve as irritants and apparently are used for defense. The openings of paired odoriferous glands are found on the cephalothorax of daddy longlegs; when irritated, these animals secrete a fluid containing cyanic acid that probably serves to repel predators.