Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal

Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (born 780, Baghdad, Abbasid caliphate [now in Iraq]—died 855, Baghdad) was a Muslim theologian, jurist, and martyr for his faith. He was the compiler of the Musnad, a collection of sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad arranged by isnād, and the formulator of the Ḥanbalī school, the most strictly traditionalist of the four orthodox schools of Islamic law. His doctrine influenced such noted followers as the 13th–14th-century theologian Ibn Taymiyyah as well as the Wahhābī and Salafi reform movements.

Life

Ibn Ḥanbal belonged to the Arab tribe of Shaybān through both parents. He was still an infant when his father died at age 30. When Ibn Ḥanbal was 15, he began to study the traditions (Hadith) of the Prophet Muhammad. Seeking to learn from the great masters of his day, he traveled to the cities of Kūfah and Basra in Iraq; to Mecca, the Hejaz, and Medina in Arabia; and to Yemen and Syria. He made five pilgrimages to the holy city of Mecca, three times on foot. Ibn Ḥanbal led a life of asceticism and self-denial, winning many disciples. He had eight children, of whom two were well known and closely associated with his intellectual work: Ṣālih (died 880) and ʿAbd Allāh (died 903).

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Islam

The central fact of Ibn Ḥanbal’s life is the suffering to which he was subjected during the inquisition, known as the miḥnah, ordered by the caliph al-Maʾmūn. But for this great trial, and the unflagging courage he displayed in the face of his persecutors, Ibn Ḥanbal would most likely have been remembered solely for his work on Hadith. As it is, he is recognized to this day not only as an expert on Hadith but also as one of the most venerated fathers of Islam and as a staunch upholder of Muslim orthodoxy.

The inquisition was inaugurated in 833, when the caliph made obligatory upon all Muslims the belief that the Qurʾān was created—a doctrine of the Muʿtazilah, a rationalist Islamic school that claimed that reason was equal to revelation as a means to religious truth. The caliph had already made public profession of this belief in 827. Theretofore, the sacred book had been regarded as the uncreated, eternal word of God. The inquisition was conducted in Baghdad, seat of the Abbasid caliphate, as well as in the provinces. It lasted from 833 to 848, a period involving the reign of four caliphs, ending during the caliphate of al-Mutawakkil, who returned to the traditionalist view.

At the risk of his life, Ibn Ḥanbal refused to subscribe to the Muʿtazilī doctrine. He was put in chains, beaten, and imprisoned for about two years. After his release, he did not resume his lectures until the inquisition was publicly proclaimed at an end. Some orthodox theologians, to survive the ordeal, had recanted, and later claimed the privilege of dissimulation, taqiyyah, as a justification for their behaviour. This is a dispensation granted in the Qurʾān to those who wish to avail themselves of it when forced to profess a false faith while denying it in their hearts. Other theologians, following the example of Ibn Ḥanbal, refused to repudiate their beliefs.

In 833 Ibn Ḥanbal and another theologian, Muḥammad ibn Nūḥ, who had also refused to recant, were cited to appear for trial before the caliph al-Maʾmūn, who was in Tarsus (now in Turkey) at the time. They were sent off in chains from Baghdad, but, shortly after beginning their journey, the caliph died, and Ibn Nūḥ died on their trip back to the capital.

Ibn Ḥanbal was ordered to appear before the new caliph, al-Muʿtaṣim. He was on trial for three days. On the third day, after the learned men disputed with him, there followed a private conference with the caliph, who asked Ibn Ḥanbal to yield at least a little so that the caliph might grant him his freedom. Ibn Ḥanbal made the same reply he had been making from the beginning of the inquisition: he would yield when given grounds for modifying his faith—grounds derived from the sources he regarded as authoritative, namely the Qurʾān and Hadith. Losing patience, the caliph ordered that he be taken away and flogged. Throughout the flogging, the caliph persisted in his attempts to obtain a recantation but to no avail. Ibn Ḥanbal’s unflinching spirit was beginning to have its effect upon the caliph, but the latter’s advisers warned that if he desisted from punishing the theologian, he would be accused of having opposed the doctrine of his predecessor al-Maʾmūn, and the victory of Ibn Ḥanbal would have dire consequences for the reign of the caliphs. The caliph’s treatment of Ibn Ḥanbal had to be suspended nevertheless because of the mounting anger of the populace gathering outside the palace and preparing to attack it. Ibn Ḥanbal is reported to have been beaten by 150 floggers, each in turn striking him twice and moving aside. The scars from his wounds remained with him to the end of his life.

The inquisition continued under the next caliph, al-Wāthiq, but Ibn Ḥanbal was no longer molested, in spite of attempts on the part of his opponents to persuade the caliph to persecute him. The new caliph, like his predecessor, was most likely influenced by the threat of a popular uprising should he lay violent hands on a man popularly held to be a saint. The momentum of the inquisition carried it two years into the reign of al-Mutawakkil, who finally put an end to it in 848.

Ibn Ḥanbal earned the greatest reputation of all the persons involved in the inquisition and the everlasting gratitude of the Muslim people. He is credited with having held his ground in the face of all odds, saving Muslims from becoming unbelievers. At his funeral the procession was estimated at more than 800,000 mourners.

Achievements

The most important of Ibn Ḥanbal’s works is his collection of Hadith. This collection was heretofore believed to have been compiled by the author’s son (ʿAbd Allāh), but there is now evidence that the work was compiled and arranged by Ibn Ḥanbal himself. The Hadith was considered by Ibn Ḥanbal as a sound basis for argument in law and religion.

Historical scholarship regarding Ibn Ḥanbal and his school has suffered from a lack of sufficient documentation, among other things. There are, therefore, some opinions regarding Ibn Ḥanbal that bear closer scrutiny in the light of new documents and recent studies. Too much stress has been laid on the influence on him of the teachings of Muḥammad ibn Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī, the founder of the Shāfiʿī school, whom Ibn Ḥanbal apparently met only once. He had a high respect for Shāfiʿī but also for the other great jurists who belonged to other schools of law, without, for that matter, relinquishing his own independent opinions. He was against codification of the law, maintaining that canonists had to be free to derive the solutions for questions of law from scriptural sources, namely the Quʾrān and the Sunnah (the body of Islamic custom and practice based on Muhammad’s words and deeds). It was to this end that he compiled his great Musnad, wherein he registered all the traditions considered in his day acceptable as bases for the solution of questions, along with the Quʾrān itself.

The fact that the Ḥanbalī school was organized at all is due to the impact of Ibn Ḥanbal on his time. The other orthodox schools were already prospering in Baghdad when the Ḥanbalī school sprang up in their midst, drawing its membership from theirs. The lateness of the hour accounts for the small membership attained by the Ḥanbalī school compared with that of the older schools. It is, however, not by the number of its members that the importance of the school and its originator should be judged but rather by their impact on the development of Islamic religious history. In the Middle Ages the school acted as a spearhead of traditionalist orthodoxy in its struggle against rationalism. One of Ibn Ḥanbal’s greatest followers, Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328), was claimed by both the Wahhābī reform movement, founded in the mid-18th century, and the modern Salafi movement, which arose in Egypt and advocated the continued supremacy of Islamic law but with fresh interpretations to meet the community’s changing needs. Ibn Ḥanbal himself is one of the fathers of Islam whose names have constantly been invoked against the forces of rationalism down through the ages.