Alasdair MacIntyre

Alasdair MacIntyre (born Jan. 12, 1929, Glasgow, Scot.) Scottish-born philosopher, one of the great moral thinkers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, well known for reintroducing Aristotelian ethics and politics into mainstream philosophy and for emphasizing the role of history in philosophical theorizing.

(Read Peter Singer’s Britannica entry on ethics.)

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MacIntyre received a bachelor’s degree in classics from the University of London (1949) and master’s degrees in philosophy from Manchester University (1951) and the University of Oxford (1961). He taught at several universities in Britain and the United States (where he immigrated in 1970), including Oxford, Boston University, Vanderbilt University, Duke University, and the University of Notre Dame. He retired in 2010.

Encounter with Marxism

MacIntyre’s early political allegiances and early scholarly work were oriented toward Marxism. (He published Marxism: An Interpretation [1953] when he was 24 years old.) But he became unsettled by what he took to be the inability of Marxists to respond cogently in moral terms to outrages perpetrated in nominally Marxist regimes. Given the Marxist critique of morality as ideological, upon what resources could Marxists draw, MacIntyre asked, to engage in rational moral criticism, including criticism of allegedly Marxist states?

In his early essay “Notes from the Moral Wilderness” (1958–59), he suggested that what was needed was a teleological ethical standpoint—i.e., one according to which adherence to moral norms enables a person to achieve the human good, not by himself but in community with others. These norms are not mere means to achieving the good but are part of what the good is. From this standpoint, MacIntyre writes, “There are things that you can do which deny your common humanity with others”; he mentions the targeting of civilians in war, the denial of racial equality, and the use of show trials (see also purge trials). The basis for the refusal ever to engage in such actions is that to perform them is undercutting of the human good, including the good of community with fellow human beings.

He did worry, however, that in making these claims he was “in some danger of replacing precision by rhetoric.” The remainder of his scholarly career was in large measure dedicated to determining precisely what ethical and political views would sustain this basic moral idea, as well as precisely how one could claim to be rationally justified in asserting it.

After Virtue and later works

In the two decades following “Notes from the Moral Wilderness,” MacIntyre’s work consisted, in his words, in “heterogeneous, badly organized, sometimes fragmented and often frustrating and messy inquiries” in ethics, political philosophy, and social theory. But from this work emerged After Virtue (1981), which set out the basic ideas that MacIntyre developed for the remainder of his career. In After Virtue, MacIntyre argued that modern moral theories are incapable of explaining the rational authority of moral norms—what makes moral norms rationally compelling—and suggested that, if such theories are the only option, morality should have as little authority over one’s conduct as the 18th-century Polynesian norms of taboo have over the conduct of contemporary Westerners. Indefensible as either an inevitable product of human attitudes or as a construction of pure reason, moral norms can best be understood as a vestige of an earlier ethical scheme—Aristotelianism—and can regain their intelligibility only if such a scheme is restored.

In particular, MacIntyre claimed that the elements of a rationally defensible morality could be found in Aristotle’s theory of virtue. According to this theory, the authority of moral virtues and moral rules lies in the fact that habituation to such virtues and adherence to such rules enable humans to pass from a state of imperfection to perfection—from (as MacIntyre put it) “untutored human nature” to “man-as-he-could-be-if-he-realized-his-telos [end].”

MacIntyre argued, however, that Aristotle’s theory is not acceptable as it stands; in After Virtue he claimed that it must be restated in a way that does not depend on Aristotle’s outdated “metaphysical biology.” According to Aristotle, each species, including the human species, has natural ends that set the good for beings of that species; such a view MacIntyre took to be incompatible with modern science. (MacIntyre later became more sympathetic to the dependence of ethics on biology; see biology, philosophy of: evolutionary ethics.) In its place he offered a theory in which a human quality counts as a virtue if it is indispensable for achieving goods internal to certain “practices” (e.g., chess, baseball, philosophy, and politics), for sustaining a person in a quest for the good life, or for sustaining communities in their common pursuit of the good.

That the good for humans involves inquiry and deliberation implies, in MacIntyre’s view, that the human good can be realized only within a certain sort of political community, one in which citizens have an ongoing role in setting its law and policy in communal deliberation. In After Virtue he criticized the politics of the modern nation-state as “civil war carried on by other means” and argued that contemporary disputes about justice cannot be brought to a rational conclusion if the nation-state is assumed to be a privileged political framework. In Dependent Rational Animals (1999) he elaborated upon these arguments, holding that the nation-state is, from the ethical perspective that he articulated, inadequate, because it sustains only a politics of bargaining in which control is wielded by elites of wealth and power. Indeed, its very size prevents it from sustaining a politics of rational deliberation. On MacIntyre’s politics, the hegemony of the nation-state is undermining of the good of human beings; what is needed is an intensely deliberative politics of local community, one epitomized by the Greek polis (city-state) of Aristotle’s day.

One of MacIntyre’s achievements, then, was to restate Aristotelian theories of ethics and politics as a coherent, large-scale theoretical viewpoint. But there still remained the question of whether allegiance to that viewpoint can be rationally justified. MacIntyre argued in Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (1988) and Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry (1990) that justification of such large-scale viewpoints must proceed historically: in order to assess the rationality of adherence to large-scale viewpoints—MacIntyre called them “traditions”—one must look to the history of their development. Traditions are often so different from each other, in the concepts they deploy and in the standards for assessment they assume, that it is difficult to see how one could be judged superior to another. MacIntyre held that one tradition can nevertheless demonstrate itself superior to another by showing that it succeeds better than its rival in its rival’s own terms—for example, by being able to diagnose failures that the rival acknowledges but cannot explain or by solving a problem that the rival recognizes but lacks any resources to address. On MacIntyre’s account, Aristotelian ethics can explain why the non-Aristotelian moral theories prominent during the Enlightenment (Humeanism, Kantianism, utilitarianism) failed as they did, and an Aristotelian politics of local community can explain why political debates that assume the nation-state as a frame of reference are doomed to failure. It is MacIntyre’s view that his Aristotelian ethics and politics show themselves worthy of rational allegiance in these ways, by explaining the deficiencies of rival theories and by exhibiting the possibility of progress in ethical and political theory in areas in which rival views have nothing significant to say.