Ashurbanipal

Ashurbanipal (flourished 7th century bce) was the last of the great kings of Assyria (reigned 668 to 627 bce), who assembled in Nineveh the first systematically organized library in Mesopotamia and the ancient Middle East.

Early life

The life of this vigorous ruler of an empire ranging initially from the Persian Gulf to Cilicia, Syria, and Egypt can be largely reconstructed from his autobiographical annals and royal correspondence. His father, Esarhaddon, appointed him crown prince of Assyria in May 672 bce to avert a dynastic struggle. Shamash-shum-ukin, a son of equal status by another wife, was appointed crown prince of Babylonia. Probably owing to the influential queen mother Naqi’a-Zakutu, Ashurbanipal was given responsibility earlier.

Ashurbanipal was involved in administration and versed in the problems of controlling the northern hill tribes. His tutors were Nabu-shar-usur, a general, and Nabu-ahi-eriba, who interested him in history and literature. Like few Mesopotamian kings before him, he mastered all scribal and priestly knowledge and was able to read Sumerian and obscure Akkadian scripts and languages. His athletic powers were shown in hunting, archery, and horsemanship. Though there is little evidence of his experience on the actual battlefield, there is no reason to doubt Ashurbanipal’s claim that his father favoured him for his bravery and intelligence.

He soon shouldered heavy responsibilities, having to command the court and nobles. No governor or prefect was appointed without consulting him, and he had authority over many state building projects. His reports to his father showed such qualities of statesmanship that he was left in charge of all affairs while his father was en route to Egypt. When Esarhaddon died at Harran in December 669 bce, Ashurbanipal transferred full power to himself without incident. The queen mother exacted an oath of allegiance from both family and courtiers.

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Ashurbanipal’s reign

Ashurbanipal’s first concern was to quell a revolution in Egypt, where Taharqa (Tarku; biblical Tirhaka), an Egyptian king, had invaded the Nile Delta and won support. Swift Assyrian military action forced Taharqa’s withdrawal, and Ashurbanipal appointed local princes supported by Assyrian garrisons. Some of the princes intrigued with Taharqa, and the Assyrians deported them to Nineveh. Keeping to his plan to have native administrators, Ashurbanipal chose Necho I as supreme ruler of the delta and made a treaty with him. Further pressure from Taharqa’s successor, Tanutamon (Tandamane), led to another Assyrian intervention in 664–663, when the Assyrians seized control of Memphis and sacked Thebes. When Necho died in 663, Ashurbanipal held to his policy and accepted the succession of another local ruler, Psamtik (Psammetichus I); he was rewarded by a peace that enabled him to campaign elsewhere. In 654 bce the Assyrian garrisons were expelled from Egypt, but trade continued so that this loss resulted in little weakening of his position.

He next turned to the Phoenician city of Tyre, which had supported both Egyptian and Lydian bids for independence. A successful siege of Tyre led to the resubmission of the rulers of Syria and Cilicia and to a request for Assyrian help from Gyges of Lydia against Cimmerian intruders. Because Lydian mercenaries had assisted Egypt, this help was refused. A swift display of military might against the Mannaeans and an alliance with Madyes, the Scythian chief, repulsed Cimmerian advances and left Ashurbanipal free to attend to Babylonia, his southern neighbour.

Ashurbanipal had confirmed his half-brother Shamash-shum-ukin as local ruler of Babylonia, but with restricted powers. Assyrian garrisons and officials there continued to report to the Assyrian king, and he continued to appoint governors both in the Sealand (Persian Gulf) and in Ur. Babylonians petitioned him directly and received land grants. For 16 years, relations with his brother were peaceful. When Tept-Humban, a usurper in Elam, entered Assyrian territory and was killed, the Assyrian action was primarily in support of the Elamite princes Humbanigash and Tammaritu, who were given specific regions in Elam with no attempt at direct Assyrian rule. Ashurbanipal’s actions probably aimed also to assist his own brother, whom he still trusted. Ashurbanipal received a deputation of Babylonians about this time, and he punished the Gambulu tribe for complicity in the Elamite affair.

Shamash-shum-ukin’s long stay in Babylon had imbued him with the traditional local spirit of nationalism and resistance. He may have interpreted his brother’s policy of appeasement as weakness and as an opportunity for him to increase his own status. In any event, he contrived a coalition with other outlying peoples of the Assyrian Empire—Phoenicia, Judah, Elam, Egypt, Lydia, and the Arab and Chaldean tribesmen—and had these groups risen simultaneously Assyria would have fallen. When Ashurbanipal discovered the plots, he appealed directly to the Babylonians and perhaps tested their loyalty by imposing a special tax; only upon their refusal did he take military action. He seemed to move in ways that avoided direct danger to his brother, and he worked more through siege warfare than through direct action; the Babylonian Chronicle records that for three years “the war went on and there were perpetual clashes.” Elam, suffering from internal dissension, was unable to help the rebels; and gradually, through starvation, the Arabs who had retreated into Babylon deserted as the famine became intense. Shamash-shum-ukin committed suicide in his burning palace in 648 bce. Ashurbanipal’s own feelings toward the city are shown by his work of restoration and by his appointment of a Chaldean noble, Kandalanu, as his viceroy there.

Ashurbanipal had to take further action to quell the rebellion. Raiding the Arab tribes, he defeated the Nabataean Uate and his allies and isolated the Qadar tribe. The struggle with Elam was harder; war there dragged on until 639 bce, when the Assyrians sacked Susa. That year Ashurbanipal celebrated his triumph; he had “the whole world” under his sway, and four captive kings drew his chariot in the procession.

The military action required to maintain order must not overshadow Ashurbanipal’s ability as an administrator. The empire prospered economically despite the threatened closure of the northern and eastern trade routes due to Lydian and Median expansions. Unfortunately, the sources are too scanty to follow his reign after 631 bce. Ashurbanipal’s death is nowhere recorded, but it seems that he followed his father’s precedent in bringing his sons Ashur-etel-ilani and Sin-shar-ishkun into co-regency, each with a separately defined authority. It is no indictment of his rule that his empire fell within two decades after his death; this was due to external pressures rather than to internal strife.