Jacques Chirac

First term

As president, Chirac tried to cut spending and thereby reduce the government’s budget deficits so that France could qualify to participate in a single common European currency, the euro, which replaced the franc as France’s sole currency in 2002. His proposed austerity measures, which included freezing the wages of public-sector employees and reducing some social welfare programs, provoked a massive general strike in late 1995. Nonetheless, Chirac continued to pursue policies of fiscal austerity despite unemployment that had reached record levels by early 1997. Hoping to win a mandate for his program, Chirac called for parliamentary elections in May 1997, but voters overwhelmingly cast their ballots for the left. His conservative coalition lost its majority in the parliament, and the Socialists were able to form a new coalition government with their leader, Jospin, as prime minister. Chirac also drew protests after authorizing nuclear tests in the South Pacific in 1995 and 1996.

In 2002 Chirac’s party, the RPR, merged with part of the Union for the French Democracy and the Liberal Democratic party to create the Union for the Presidential Majority (later renamed the Union for a Popular Movement; UMP). In the spring of the same year—despite criticism for various ethical lapses and accusations of illegal fund-raising levied against the RPR—Chirac won the first round of France’s presidential balloting over right-wing nationalist Jean-Marie Le Pen and Jospin, whose third-place showing eliminated him from the second round. With near-universal support from the political establishment in the second round, including from the French Communist Party and Jospin’s Socialist Party, Chirac was easily reelected president, winning 82 percent of the vote to Le Pen’s 18 percent—the largest margin of victory in any French presidential election.

Second term

Chirac’s second term, which officially began in May 2002, would be shorter than his first; in 2000 French voters had passed a referendum to change the presidential term of office from seven to five years. The term opened positively for Chirac: the UMP’s victory in the June 2002 legislative elections ended the president’s cohabitation with the Socialist prime minister. Chirac appointed fellow centre-right politician Jean-Pierre Raffarin to the post.

The early part of the term was dominated by U.S.- and British-led efforts to secure United Nations support for a military invasion of Iraq, whose government, led by Ṣaddām Ḥussein, they accused of possessing or attempting to develop weapons of mass destruction in violation of UN Security Council resolutions. In November 2002 France backed a U.S.-sponsored resolution mandating the return to Iraq of weapons inspectors, who had been withdrawn in 1998. In early 2003, as the United States accused Iraq of failing to adequately cooperate with the inspectors, Chirac declared that France would veto any new Security Council resolution authorizing the use of force. With German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Russian President Vladimir Putin, Chirac proposed a plan to toughen and extend the inspections regime, but the United States rejected it as unlikely to succeed. Despite this and later efforts by Chirac to prevent a war with Iraq, a U.S.-led coalition attacked the country in March 2003. Chirac’s leadership among Europeans opposed to the war created considerable enmity toward him in the administration of U.S. President George W. Bush.

Later in his second term, Chirac’s popularity declined. His party, the UMP, fared poorly in both regional and European Parliament elections in 2004. Also that year, Chirac signed into law a controversial measure that prohibited head scarves worn by Muslim girls, as well as other religious symbols, in state schools. In 2005, after French voters rejected Chirac’s call for the ratification of a new constitution for the European Union, Chirac replaced Prime Minister Raffarin with Dominique de Villepin. In October of that year, anger over discrimination and high unemployment fueled rioting in several Parisian suburbs heavily populated by immigrants. The disturbances soon spread to the rest of the country, prompting Chirac to declare a state of emergency. Chirac saw his prestige fall further in 2006, when massive demonstrations forced the government to abandon legislation that would have made it easier for companies to fire young employees. In late 2006 Chirac’s longtime political rival Nicolas Sarkozy, interior minister and head of the UMP, announced his plans to run for president the following year. Sarkozy won the election, and in May 2007 he succeeded Chirac.