Leon Festinger

Leon Festinger (born May 8, 1919, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.—died February 11, 1989, New York City) American cognitive psychologist, best known for his theory of cognitive dissonance, according to which inconsistency between thoughts, or between thoughts and actions, leads to discomfort (dissonance), which motivates changes in thoughts or behaviours. Festinger also made important contributions to the study of group behaviour, self-evaluation, and attitude change.

Education

Festinger graduated with a B.A. in psychology from the City College of New York in 1939. He then entered the University of Iowa, where he studied with the German-born social psychologist Kurt Lewin and obtained a Ph.D. in 1942. One year later he moved to the University of Rochester to work as a statistician for the National Research Council’s Committee on the Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots. He stayed there until the end of World War II.

Social pressures in informal groups

In 1945 Festinger became assistant professor at the Research Center for Group Dynamics, which was then headed by Lewin, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The centre was committed to the application of psychological concepts and methods to solve social problems, and it attracted many talented students, including Stanley Schachter and Harold Kelley.

An important early research project was based on attitude surveys of residents in married student housing. The study documented a textbook phenomenon: friendships were more likely to occur the closer the people were physically (even by just a few yards). Similarity in attitudes was also critical: attitudes of residents tended to converge, but residents who held deviant attitudes were likely to be social isolates.

One central idea for Festinger at this time was that group members acquired similar beliefs and opinions because of social pressures toward uniformity or fitting in. In his informal communication theory, he proposed that people are susceptible to social pressures when they are attracted to a group. Such attraction occurs because some goals can be pursued successfully only with the cooperation of others or because groups provide validation about social reality, which is necessary because some opinions and beliefs cannot be tested directly or objectively (e.g., “Should abortion be legal?”; “Who is the greatest baseball player of all time?”).

Assuming that people are attracted to a particular group, they could strive for group uniformity or agreement by trying to change other people’s opinions (communication), by modifying their own views to match those of other group members (opinion change), or by rejecting divergent others as appropriate references (rejection). Such pressures should be greater in attractive groups and increase as an issue becomes more relevant to a group’s goals.

To test the theory, Festinger and his students conducted a series of laboratory experiments. Groups (or clubs) were formed of previously unacquainted individuals who were asked to discuss various issues. Factors such as types of goals, need for social reality, attractiveness, issue relevance, and so on were manipulated. In some experiments, accomplices posed as subjects and played scripted roles as group members with deviating or consensual opinions. Although precedents for this ambitious research program existed in earlier work by Lewin and the Turkish-born social psychologist Muzafer Sherif, Festinger magnified the experimenter’s role as playwright and stage director.

For his dissertation, Schachter, under Festinger’s direction, placed accomplices in groups. One adopted the majority view (i.e., the “mode”) from the beginning, another initially voiced a deviant view but over the course of the discussion adopted the consensual position (i.e., the “slider”), and a third (the “deviate”) maintained the opposing view. Observers coded group discussion behaviours. The actual subjects tried to persuade the other discussion partners. The mode was readily accepted, as was the slider after adopting the majority view. Initially, much communication was directed at the deviate, but communication declined when the deviate proved impossible to convince, and the deviate was nominated for the most undesirable club assignments. Consistent with the theory, group goals or social reality were achieved by striving for group consensus, the pressures to obtain uniformity were manifested via different behavioral routes, and deviates were rejected.

This experiment reflects several features of Festinger’s research. Festinger realized that progress in any science required methods appropriate to that field. Accordingly, social psychology needed its own experimental approach. Following Lewin’s lead, he conceived of the new methodology as a kind of experimental theatre, with cover stories, accomplices, and deception to control for confounding factors and to create a situation that was perceived as psychologically meaningful to the subject.

Social comparison theory

After Lewin’s death in 1947, the Research Center for Group Dynamics, with most of its remaining faculty, moved to the University of Michigan. In 1951 Festinger moved to a tenure-track position at the University of Minnesota, where Schachter was already on the faculty.

At the University of Minnesota, Festinger developed social comparison theory, his second major contribution to social psychology. Informal social communication theory was about the power of the group over the person. In contrast, social comparison theory emphasized how individuals evaluate their own opinions and abilities against those of others.

Social comparison theory posited that people evaluate their abilities and opinions by comparing them with those of others when it is not feasible to test them directly. Comparison leads to pressures toward uniformity (i.e., similarity), but the tendency to compare will cease if others are too different in dimensions that are related to the ability or opinion at issue. For opinions, agreement with others who presumably are also motivated to hold correct views tends to make people feel more confident. For abilities, observing those with similar abilities allows people to learn what actions they are capable of.

Social comparison theory also recognizes a distinctive feature of abilities. People want to be slightly better than everyone else because the desire to be better or to improve is emphasized in Western cultures. This means that, in Western cultures, complete opinion agreement may be satisfactory to everyone, but completely equal abilities will not be—implying that “a state of social quiescence is never reached,” as Festinger put it.