Muammar al-Qaddafi

Muammar al-Qaddafi (born 1942, near Sirte, Libya—died October 20, 2011, Sirte) was the de facto leader of Libya (1969–2011). Qaddafi had ruled for more than four decades when he was ousted by a revolt in August 2011. After evading capture for several weeks, he was killed by rebel forces in October 2011.

Rise to power, policies, and The Green Book

The son of an itinerant Bedouin farmer, Qaddafi was born in a tent in the Libyan desert. He proved a talented student and graduated from the University of Libya in 1963. A devout Muslim and ardent Arab nationalist, Qaddafi early began plotting to overthrow the Libyan monarchy of King Idris I. He graduated from the Libyan military academy in 1965 and thereafter rose steadily through the ranks, all the while continuing to plan a coup with the help of his fellow army officers. On September 1, 1969, Qaddafi seized control of the government in a military coup that deposed King Idris. Qaddafi was named commander in chief of the armed forces and chairman of Libya’s new governing body, the Revolutionary Command Council.

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Qaddafi removed the U.S. and British military bases from Libya in 1970. He expelled most members of the native Italian and Jewish communities from Libya that same year, and in 1973 he nationalized all foreign-owned petroleum assets in the country. He outlawed alcoholic beverages and gambling, in accordance with his own strict Islamic principles. Qaddafi also began a series of persistent but unsuccessful attempts to unify Libya with other Arab countries. He was adamantly opposed to negotiations with Israel and became a leading figure in the Arab world in the rejection of the Egyptian-Israeli peace process. He earned a reputation for military adventurism; his government was implicated in several abortive coup attempts in Egypt and Sudan, and Libyan forces persistently intervened in the long-running civil war in neighbouring Chad.

From 1974 onward Qaddafi espoused a form of Islamic socialism as expressed in The Green Book. This combined the nationalization of many economic sectors with a brand of populist government ostensibly operating through people’s congresses, labour unions, and other mass organizations. Innovations along these lines continued to be introduced, including a system of government in 1977 called jamāhīriyyah (a neologism implying a popular decentralized confederation). Qaddafi relinquished his formal leadership of Libya’s government in 1979 but, despite the claims of merely guiding a revolutionary form of populist democracy, the reins of power remained firmly concentrated in his hands.

Foreign relations, Lockerbie bombing, and sanctions

Meanwhile, Qaddafi was becoming known for his erratic and unpredictable behaviour on the international scene. His government financed a broad spectrum of groups worldwide that sought revolutionary objectives of their own, including the Black Panthers and the Nation of Islam in the United States and the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland. Squads of Libyan agents assassinated émigré opponents abroad, and his government was allegedly involved in several bloody terrorist incidents in Europe perpetrated by Palestinian or other Arab extremists. These activities brought him into growing conflict with the U.S. government, and in April 1986 a force of British-based U.S. warplanes bombed several sites in Libya, killing or wounding several of his children and narrowly missing Qaddafi himself.

Libya’s purported involvement in the destruction of a civilian airliner in 1988 over Lockerbie, Scotland, led to United Nations (UN) and U.S. sanctions that further isolated Qaddafi from the international community. In the late 1990s, however, Qaddafi turned over the alleged perpetrators of the bombing to international authorities. UN sanctions against Libya were subsequently lifted in 2003, and, following Qaddafi’s announcement that Libya would cease its unconventional weapons program, the United States dropped most of its sanctions as well. Although some observers remained critical, these measures provided an opportunity for the rehabilitation of Qaddafi’s image abroad and facilitated his country’s gradual return to the global community.

In February 2009 Qaddafi was elected chairman of the African Union (AU), and later that year he gave his first speech before the UN General Assembly. The lengthy critical speech, in which he threw a copy of the UN Charter, generated a significant measure of controversy within the international community. In early 2010 Qaddafi’s attempt to remain as chairman of the AU beyond the customary one-year term was met with resistance from several other African countries and ultimately was denied.

Libyan revolt of 2011

In February 2011, after antigovernment demonstrations forced Presidents Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali and Hosni Mubarak from power in the neighbouring countries of Tunisia and Egypt, anti-Qaddafi demonstrations broke out in the Libyan city of Benghazi. As the protests spread throughout the country, the Qaddafi regime attempted to violently suppress them, directing police and mercenary forces to fire live ammunition at protesters and ordering attacks by artillery, fighter jets, and helicopter gunships against demonstration sites. Foreign government officials and international human rights groups condemned the regime’s assault on the protesters. Qaddafi’s violent tactics also alienated senior figures in the Libyan government. The Libyan minister of justice resigned in protest, and a number of senior Libyan diplomats either resigned or issued statements of support for the uprising. On February 22 Qaddafi delivered a rambling defiant speech on state television, refusing to step down and calling the demonstrators traitors and saboteurs. He claimed that the opposition had been directed by al-Qaeda and that the protesters had been under the influence of hallucinogenic drugs. He urged his supporters to defend him by fighting protesters.

Qaddafi’s hold on power appeared increasingly weak as the opposition forces gained strength. By the end of February, opposition forces had established control over large amounts of Libyan territory, encircling Tripoli, where Qaddafi remained in control but in growing isolation. In interviews with Western media on February 28, Qaddafi insisted that he was still well loved by the Libyan people and denied that the regime had used violence against the demonstrators. He repeated his claim that the opposition in Libya had been organized by al-Qaeda.

As the opposition gained strength, international pressure for Qaddafi to step down increased. On February 26 the UN Security Council unanimously approved a measure that included sanctions against the Qaddafi regime, imposing a travel ban and an arms embargo and freezing the Qaddafi family’s assets. On February 28 the United States announced that it had frozen $30 billion in Libyan assets linked to Qaddafi.

Although international opposition to Qaddafi’s actions continued to build, his forces seemed to regain the upper hand in Libya, retaking many of the areas that had been taken by the rebels early in the conflict. As Qaddafi’s forces advanced on Benghazi, the UN Security Council voted on March 17 to authorize military intervention to protect civilians. The ensuing air campaign, led by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), inflicted significant damage on pro-Qaddafi forces but did not decisively tip the balance in favor of the rebels, leading to an apparent stalemate between the two forces. In late March the Qaddafi regime was shaken by the defection of two senior Libyan officials, Moussa Koussa and Ali Abdussalam el-Treki, both members of Qaddafi’s inner circle. Despite those setbacks, Qaddafi appeared to remain firmly in control in Tripoli, stating publicly that he would resist any attempt to remove him from power. Pro-Qaddafi forces continued to operate in spite of the NATO air campaign.

On April 30 a NATO air strike on Qaddafi’s Bāb al-ʿAzīziyyah compound in Tripoli killed Qaddafi’s youngest son, Sayf al-Arab, and three of Qaddafi’s grandchildren. Qaddafi, reportedly in the targeted house at the time of the attack, escaped without injury. Following the air strike, NATO denied that it had adopted a strategy of trying to kill Qaddafi.

In early March the International Criminal Court (ICC) had announced that it would open an investigation into possible crimes against humanity by Qaddafi and his supporters. On May 16 the ICC called for arrest warrants to be issued against Qaddafi, along with his son Sayf al-Islam and the Libyan intelligence chief, Abdullah Senussi, for ordering attacks on civilians during the uprising; the arrest warrants, for crimes against humanity, were issued on June 27.

In August 2011 Qaddafi’s hold on power appeared to break when rebel forces entered Tripoli and took control of most areas of the city. Rebel fighters achieved a major symbolic victory on August 23 when they captured the Bāb al-ʿAzīziyyah compound, Qaddafi’s headquarters in Tripoli. Jubilant crowds ransacked the compound, destroying symbols of the Qaddafi regime. Qaddafi’s whereabouts remained uncertain, although he released several audio messages urging the Libyan people to resist the rebels. As rebel forces solidified their hold on Tripoli, they intensified their efforts to track down Qaddafi, offering a $1.7 million reward for killing or capturing him. Qaddafi was killed in Sirte on October 20 as rebel forces took control of the city, one of the last remaining loyalist strongholds.