Paul J. Flory

Paul J. Flory (born June 19, 1910, Sterling, Ill., U.S.—died Sept. 8, 1985, Big Sur, Calif.) was an American polymer chemist who was awarded the 1974 Nobel Prize for Chemistry “for his fundamental achievements, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules.”

Background and education

Flory was born of Huguenot-German parentage. His father, Ezra Flory, was a Brethren clergyman-educator. His mother, née Martha Brumbaugh, had been a schoolteacher. Flory attended Elgin High School in Elgin, Ill., before enrolling in Manchester College, a Brethren liberal arts college in North Manchester, Ind., in 1927. There, his interest in science was kindled by chemistry professor Carl W. Holl, who encouraged him to apply for graduate school at Ohio State University in Columbus, which had one of the largest chemistry departments in the country. A shy young man, Flory enrolled in 1930 and completed a master’s degree in organic chemistry because he was too insecure about his abilities in mathematics and physics to pursue his main interest, physical chemistry. For his doctorate he did dare to switch to physical chemistry, however, and he defended his thesis, supervised by Herrick L. Johnston, on the photochemistry of nitric oxide in 1934.

Scientific career and achievements

Flory’s professional career included many positions, almost equally divided between industrial and academic institutions. In July 1934, he started to work in the Central Research Department of E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company under American chemist Wallace Hume Carothers. Carothers had just completed his pathbreaking studies of condensation polymerization, which were widely regarded as definitive proof of the existence of the gigantic long-chain molecules that had been proposed by the German chemist Hermann Staudinger in the 1920s. It was Flory’s task to study the physical chemistry of such macromolecules (or polymers), a subject that would grow into his lifelong occupation. A year after Carothers’ untimely death in 1937, Flory moved to the University of Cincinnati in Ohio. In 1940 he went to work at the laboratories of the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) in Linden, N.J.; work at the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company in Akron, Ohio, followed in 1943. In 1948 Flory accepted a lectureship in chemistry at Cornell University in Ithaca, N.Y., a position that turned into a full professorship the same year. After several productive years at Cornell, Flory became executive director of research at the Mellon Institute in Pittsburgh in 1957, a post that he left four years later for Stanford University in California. Flory became emeritus in 1975.

Carothers was the first to show that polymeric substances (such as rubber, cellulose, proteins, plastics, and nylon) could be treated in terms of ordinary chemistry—an approach that inspired Flory. In his first year at DuPont, Flory came up with the “principle of equal reactivity,” which states that chains do not lose their propensity to grow when they get longer, as had been assumed before. On the basis of this principle, Flory calculated a chain length distribution curve, which was experimentally confirmed later. Also during his DuPont years, Flory developed his idea of “chain transfer,” which indicated that a growing addition polymer can transfer its site of growth to a neighbouring molecule by taking over one of its atoms. This insight enabled chemists to control the average chain lengths of polymer products by adding growth-terminating substances—an ability that was exploited during World War II for the U.S. Synthetic Rubber Program, to which Flory contributed at Standard Oil and Goodyear.

Perhaps Flory’s most fundamental contribution was initiated at Standard Oil and elaborated during his Cornell years. Simultaneous with American chemist Maurice Huggins at the Eastman Kodak Company, Flory developed a theory of polymer solutions that accounted for the fact that a polymer chain claims many times the volume of a single chain segment. This phenomenon is expressed in the famous Flory-Huggins, or “volume-fraction,” formula, which gives the entropy of a mixture in a way similar to how the van der Waals equation expresses the behaviour of gases. Another milestone was his analysis of the swelling of a single coil in a good solvent. Flory realized that a chain will avoid intersection with itself and that this avoidance will cause it to swell significantly more than when it could form a random coil. Besides, different sections of the chain attract each other, which leads to a collapse of the coil in poor solvents and at low temperatures. Flory deduced that there would be a “theta state” in which the two effects balanced each other out, so as to make the solution behave ideally. In a polymer melt, he argued with success, all interactions are screened, and ideal random coil behaviour exists as well.

Public and private pursuits

Flory was an active educator of polymer chemistry. His lectures at Cornell laid the basis for Principles of Polymer Chemistry (1953), an introductory textbook that was the standard in the field for several decades. He was an ardent advocate for including the subject in undergraduate curricula, where many polymer chemists felt it continued to be underrepresented in spite of the field’s enormous practical importance. Flory was a consultant to International Business Machines and DuPont for many years and filed 20 patents. His scientific output included more than 300 publications, and he was bestowed with numerous scientific awards.

After receiving the Nobel Prize, he decided to mobilize his public visibility in the battle for the human rights of oppressed scientists, especially in the Soviet Union. Flory was a prime mover in Scientists for Sakharov, Orlov, and Shcharansky (SOS) and the Committee of Concerned Scientists. He often visited dissident scientists and spoke frequently on the Voice of America broadcast to the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Much of the background reading and preparation for these activities was done by his wife, née Emily Tabor, whom he had married in 1936. They had three children, all of whom majored in science.