Pius XII

Pius XII (born March 2, 1876, Rome, Italy—died October 9, 1958, Castel Gandolfo) was the pope, bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic Church, who had a long, tumultuous, and controversial pontificate (1939–58). During his reign as pope, the papacy confronted the ravages of World War II (1939–45), the abuses of the Nazi, fascist, and Soviet regimes, the horror of the Holocaust, the challenge of postwar reconstruction, and the threat of communism and the Cold War. Deemed an ascetic and “saint of God” by his admirers, Pius was criticized by others for his alleged “public silence” in the face of genocide and his apparently contradictory policies of impartiality during World War II but fervent anticommunism during the postwar period.

Early life and career

One of four children, Eugenio Pacelli was born in Rome to a family that was part of the papal, or “black,” nobility, which was devoted to service to the Vatican. His great-grandfather had served as minister of finance under Pope Gregory XVI (reigned 1831–46), his grandfather had served as undersecretary of the interior under Pius IX (1846–78), and his father was dean of the Vatican lawyers. After attending state primary schools and completing his secondary education at the Visconti Institute, Pacelli studied at the Appolinare Institute of Lateran University and Gregorian University, earning degrees in law and theology. In 1899 he was ordained a priest and in 1901 was appointed to the papal secretariat of state. He later worked under the direction of Pietro Cardinal Gasparri in preparing the new codification of canon law. He also taught international law and diplomacy at the school for papal diplomats in Rome. In 1914 Pacelli was named secretary of the Congregation for Extraordinary Affairs.

In 1917, as part of the Vatican’s initiative to end World War I, Benedict XV (1914–22) named him apostolic nuncio (ambassador) to the German state of Bavaria. Pacelli enthusiastically endorsed Benedict’s strict impartiality, even though the pope’s attempts to mediate a peace proved unsuccessful. Following the war, he remained in the Bavarian capital, Munich, where he had a shocking experience when, during the Spartacist rising in 1919, communists burst into the papal nunciature brandishing revolvers. This encounter left an indelible impression upon Pacelli and contributed to his lifelong fear of communism. In 1920 he was dispatched as the first apostolic nuncio to the new German Weimar Republic, with whom he sought to negotiate a concordat (a papal agreement with a national government aimed at preserving the church’s privileges and freedom of action within the country in question). Pacelli’s discussions with the Weimar government failed, but he succeeded in signing agreements with Bavaria in 1924 and Prussia in 1929. Moreover, by the time he departed Berlin in 1929, Pacelli was a staunch Germanophile.

He became a cardinal at the end of 1929, and early in 1930 he replaced Cardinal Gasparri as secretary of state. In 1935 he was appointed papal chamberlain (camerlengo) and thus administrator of the church during any interregnum. Pacelli and the pope who appointed him to these positions, Pius XI (1922–39), had very different personalities. While the pope was outspoken and confrontational, Pacelli was cautious and diplomatic. Yet the two complemented each other and shared the belief that church interests could better be assured by concordats—even with regimes hostile to Christian principles—than by reliance on nation-based political parties acting on the church’s behalf. In fact, Pacelli’s brother Francesco helped Gasparri and Pius XI conclude the Lateran Accords with fascist Italy in 1929, which ended the so-called Roman Question and created the independent state of Vatican City. Pacelli, in turn, helped to negotiate concordats with Baden (1932), Austria (1933), and, controversially, with Adolf Hitler’s Third Reich (July 20, 1933). Some denounced the last as an unfortunate Vatican bargain with a notorious regime.

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Pacelli traveled widely on papal missions, visiting South America (1934) and North America (1936) as well as France (1935, 1937) and Hungary (1937). Because of his fluency in German and familiarity with German life, he served as Pius XI’s principal adviser on Hitler and the Nazis, who assumed power in 1933. At the pope’s command, Pacelli helped draft the anti-Nazi encyclical Mit brennender Sorge (“With Deep Anxiety”), written partly in response to the Nürnberg Laws and addressed to the German church on March 14, 1937. In it the papacy condemns racial theories and the mistreatment of people because of their race or nationality but does not refer to Hitler or the Nazis by name. The pope, aware of Pacelli’s strong desire to prevent a break in relations between the Vatican and Berlin, commissioned the American Jesuit John La Farge to prepare an encyclical demonstrating the incompatibility of Catholicism and racism and excluded Pacelli from participating.

Early pontificate

After Pius XI’s death on February 10, 1939, Cardinal Pacelli was elected his successor as Pope Pius XII in a short conclave. Humani generis unitas (“The Unity of the Human Race”), Pius XI’s planned encyclical against racism and anti-Semitism, was returned to its authors by the new pope. Trained as a diplomat, Pius XII followed the cautious course paved by Leo XIII and Benedict XV rather than the more confrontational one taken by Pius IX, Pius X, and Pius XI. Hoping to serve as a “Pope of Peace,” Pius XII tried unsuccessfully to dissuade European governments from embarking on war. As part of his policy of preserving the impartiality of the Holy See and serving as mediator between nations, Pius did not want to antagonize fascist Italy and Nazi Germany by issuing an encyclical that would have provoked them, a decision now cited by historians antipathetic to the pope as a sign of his indifference in the face of evil. His defenders, in turn, argue that Pius XII sought to avoid reprisals and greater harm. Whatever his motivation, when Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, Pius did not condemn the aggression, insisting that he had to remain above the fray, and his first encyclical, Summi pontificatus (“On the Limitations of the Authority of the State”), issued October 20, 1939, reflected this diplomatic course.

Pius XII, like Benedict XV, insisted that the papal position was not one of neutrality (which implied indifference) but one of impartiality. This, however, did not prevent Pius from informing the British government early in 1940 that several German generals were prepared to overturn the Nazi government if they could be assured of an honourable peace, and it did not prevent him from warning the Allies of the impending German invasion of the Low Countries in May 1940. Nor did it prevent him from futilely attempting to keep Benito Mussolini from entering the war (fascist Italy joined the Axis on June 10, 1940).