St. Cyprian

St. Cyprian (born 200 ce, Carthage—died September 14, 258, Carthage; Western and Eastern feast day September 16; Anglican feast day September 26) was an early Christian theologian and bishop of Carthage who led the Christians of North Africa during a period of persecution from Rome. Upon his execution he became the first bishop-martyr of Africa.

Bishop during the Decian persecution

Cyprian was born of wealthy pagan parents and was educated in law. He practiced as a lawyer in Carthage before he was converted to Christianity about 246. In baptism he found complete release from the sinful and useless life he believed he had led hitherto. Within two years he was elected bishop of Carthage and a few months later, early in 250, was confronted by the Decian persecution. He went into hiding. Bereft of his leadership, thousands of Christians apostatized (rejected their faith) or obtained libelli (certificates), by which they declared that they had sacrificed to the pagan gods. When the persecution began to diminish, the confessors—i.e., those who had stood firm for their faith—reconciled the lapsed on easy terms, claiming that as “friends of Christ” they had the right of granting pardon, even more than did priests and bishops.

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Cyprian returned to Carthage (early 251) and at a council of bishops in May 251 was able to regain his authority. The decision of the council was that, though no one should be totally excluded from penance, those who truly had sacrificed their faith (the sacrificati) should be readmitted only on their deathbeds, and those who had merely accepted certificates (the libellatici) were to be readmitted after varying periods of penance. Three important principles of church discipline were thus established. First, the right and power to remit deadly sins, even that of apostasy, lay in the hands of the church; second, the final authority in disciplinary matters rested with the bishops in council as repositories of the Holy Spirit; and, third, unworthy members among the laity must be accepted in the New Israel of Christianity just as in the Old Israel of Judaism.

In 252 a renewed threat of persecution by the emperor Gallus encouraged a speedier reintegration of the lapsed, because many now wanted to prove themselves as martyrs. In the same year, the steadfastness of the Christian clergy in face of a plague won for the church further popular support, and Cyprian defeated internal enemies who had set up a rival bishop in Carthage.

Relations with Rome

In the summer of 254 his position was tested again, by a dispute with Stephen, bishop of Rome (254–257). Until then relations between the churches of Carthage and Rome had been cordial. In 251 Cyprian had supported Bishop Cornelius against his rival, Novatian, and had written on his behalf the treatise On the Unity of the Catholic Church, which stressed the centrality of the see of Peter (Rome) as the source of the episcopacy. Though Cyprian may have written two drafts of an important passage concerning the primacy of the chair of Peter, he implied no acceptance of Roman jurisdictional prerogatives. When in 254 two Spanish congregations (Mérida and León) appealed to him against a decision by Stephen to restore bishops who had lapsed during the persecution, he summoned a council to consider the case. The council decided that the congregations not only had a right but a duty to separate themselves from a cleric who had committed a deadly sin such as apostasy. Cyprian wrote (Letter 67) that the Holy Spirit was no longer in such a priest and that his sacraments would lead to perdition and not salvation. The church as the “pure Bride of Christ” might be obliged to absorb a sinful laity, but a sinful priest making offerings on behalf of the people was unthinkable.

Within months there was an even more serious dispute with Rome. For a few years the supporters of Novatian had been active in Africa, asserting against Cyprian that no forgiveness for lapsed Christians was possible. With the recovery of Cyprian’s prestige, however, their threat began to fade. Many of those whom they had baptized clamoured to be admitted to the church. Was their baptism valid or not? In Rome, Stephen, confronted by the same problem, decided that all baptism in the name of the Trinity was valid. The Africans at first were of two minds on the issue, and Cyprian held three councils between the autumn of 255 and September 256. The last, at which 87 bishops were present, decided unanimously that there could be no baptism outside the church, just as there could not be faith, hope, or salvation for those outside it. A minister could not dispense what he himself did not possess—namely, the Holy Spirit. Those who had received baptism from Novatianists had to be baptized anew. Behind this clash over rites lay the more fundamental question concerning the nature of the church. Though Rome emphasized the church’s universal and inevitably mixed character on earth, the North Africans stressed its integrity under all circumstances. Baptism entailed total renunciation of the world and the reception of the Spirit.

Persecution under Valerian

A complete breach between Rome and Carthage was averted by Stephen’s death on August 2, 257, and his successor, Sixtus II, was more conciliatory. Meanwhile, persecution had been renewed by the emperor Valerian (253–260). On August 30, 257, Cyprian was summoned before the proconsul, Aspasius Paternus, and was assigned an enforced residence at Curubis (Kurba) on the Gulf of Hammamet. Following a more severe edict the next year, he was brought back to Carthage, tried, and condemned to death.

During the previous seven years his character had matured, and he had shown himself to be a brave and resourceful leader of the church in Africa. His theology was based on the central idea of the unity and uniqueness of the church: “He no longer has God for his Father, who does not have the Church for his mother” (On the Unity of the Catholic Church). Unity was expressed through the consensus of bishops, all equally possessing the Holy Spirit and sovereign in their own sees. The church consisted of the people united to their bishop. Schism and rebellion against the priesthood were viewed as the worst of sins. These views—associated with an uncompromising insistence on the integrity and exclusive character of the church, which are believed to have been derived from the North African theologian Tertullian—received divine sanction for most North African Christians through his martyrdom.