Aspects of distribution
Personal distribution
Personal distribution is primarily a matter of statistics and the conclusions that can be drawn from them. When incomes are charted according to the number of people in each size category, the resulting frequency distribution is rather startling. Generally the top 10 percent of income receivers get between 25 and 35 percent of the national income, while the lowest 20 percent of the income receivers get about 5 percent of the national income. The inequality seems to be greatest in poor countries and diminishes somewhat in the course of economic development.
There are various explanations of the inequality. Some authorities point to the natural inequality of human beings (differences in intelligence and ability), others to the effects of social institutions (including education); some emphasize economic factors such as scarcity; others invoke political concepts such as power, exploitation, or the structure of society.
For a long time economists were pessimistic as to the possibilities of any substantial improvement in the lot of those at the bottom of the income distribution. They generally held that the scarcity of productive land and the tendency of population to increase faster than the means of subsistence imposed limits on distributive justice. David Ricardo, in On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817), held that the landlords would receive an increasing part of the national income while capitalists would get less and less and that this shift in distribution would lead to economic stagnation. Karl Marx prophesied that the workers would be increasingly exploited and made miserable and that these conditions would lead to the downfall of capitalism. Neither prediction materialized. Thus in the Western world the share of rents has dwindled to a few percent of the national income, while the share of labour has gradually increased. For some time, economists believed that the share of labour was more or less constant, but investigations show that economic development is accompanied by an increasing share of labour. Though the statistics are complicated by technical problems, it is safe to say that in the United States, the share of wages rose from more than half the national income at the beginning of the century to more than 70 percent in the 1980s.
Contemporary approaches to this aspect of income distribution vary. Some are highly abstract and are closely related to the study of the whole, the modern macroeconomics of saving and investment. These will not be dealt with here. A simple common-sense approach employs an equation that starts by writing labour’s share as the quotient of the total wage bill and the national income, and then writes the wage bill as the product of the wage level and the amount of labour (wage bill = wage level × amount of labour); next the national income is written as the product of the national output and the price level (national income = national output × price level); the result is that the share of labour equals the quotient of the average real wage rate and labour productivity, the latter being the quotient of the national output and the amount of labour. If these two variables move in a parallel fashion, the share of labour is constant. If the real wage rate increases faster than the amount of labour productivity, the share of labour goes up. Similar reasoning applies to the shares of capital and land. This simple arithmetic is useful for an understanding of what happens in the real world, but for a profounder analysis one must turn to the theory of functional distribution.
Functional distribution
The theory of functional distribution, which attempts to explain the prices of land, labour, and capital, is a standard subject in economics. It sees the demand for land, labour, and capital as derived demand, stemming from the demand for final goods. Behind this lies the idea that a businessman demands inputs of land, labour, and capital because he needs them in the production of goods that he sells. The theory of distribution is thus related to the theory of production, one of the well-developed subjects of economics. The reasoning that synthesizes production and distribution theory is called neoclassical theory.