External political influences
Assyrian and Egyptian domination
In 709 bce Sargon II of Assyria erected a stela at Citium recording the fact that seven Cypriot kings had paid him homage; subsequent Assyrian documents mention 11 tributary kingdoms: the seven already cited plus Citium, Kyrenia, Tamassos, and Idalium. This subordination to Assyria, probably rather nominal, lasted until about 663. For the next hundred years, Cyprus enjoyed a period of complete independence and massive development. Epic poetry grew increasingly popular, and much was written on the island; Stasinus of Cyprus, credited with the authorship of the lost epic poem Cypria, was highly regarded among the poets of this literary genre in the 7th century. Bronze, iron, delicate jewelry, and ivory work are characteristic of this period; notable examples are the ivory throne and bedstead excavated from a royal tomb at Salamis dating from about 700 bce.
When the Assyrian empire finally broke up at the end of the 7th century bce, Egypt, under the Saite dynasty, became the predominant power in the eastern Mediterranean. About 569 the Cypriot kingdoms recognized the pharaoh Ahmose II as their overlord. Direct Egyptian influence was not always apparent, but many limestone sculptures reproduced Egyptian conventions in dress, and some statues were directly inspired by Egyptian models. A more important influence in the late Archaic period (750–475 bce) came from the artistic schools of Ionia—probably the same source of inspiration for issuing coinage; the first Cypriot coins were circulated for King Euelthon of Salamis in 560–525 bce.
The Persian empire
In 525 bce the Cypriot kings transferred their allegiance to the Achaemenid (Persian) conquerors of Egypt. The Cypriots retained their independence until the accession of Darius I in 522 but were then incorporated into the fifth satrapy of the Persian empire. When the Ionians revolted in 499, all the kingdoms of Cyprus except Amathus joined them; the revolt was subsequently suppressed, culminating in sieges of Paphos and Soli. During Xerxes I’s invasion of Greece in 480 bce, the Cypriot kings, like the Ionians, contributed naval contingents to his forces. Cyprus remained under Persian rule during the 5th century in spite of a major Athenian expedition there in about 450. Evagoras, who became king of Salamis in 411 bce, maintained a pro-Hellenic policy—with some help from Athens—and succeeded in extending his rule over a large portion of the island. He was defeated by the Persians in 381 and was assassinated three years later. After the victory of Alexander the Great over the last Achaemenid ruler, Darius III, at Issus in 333 bce, the Cypriot kings rallied to Alexander and assisted him at the siege of Tyre. During the Classical period (475–325 bce), Cypriot art came under strong Attic influence.
Hellenistic and Roman rule
Alexander allowed the Cypriot kingdoms to continue but took from them the right to issue coinage. After his death in 323, his successors fought for control of Cyprus. The eventual victor was Ptolemy I of Egypt, who suppressed the kingdoms and made the island a province of his Egyptian kingdom. He forced the last king of Salamis, Nicocreon, to commit suicide in 310 bce, together with all his family. For two and a half centuries, Cyprus remained a Ptolemaic possession, ruled by a strategus, or governor-general.
Cyprus as a Roman province
Cyprus was annexed by the Roman Republic in 58 bce and, along with Cilicia on the coast of Anatolia, was made into a Roman province. One of its first proconsuls was the orator and writer Cicero. Cyprus was briefly ceded to Cleopatra VII of Egypt by Julius Caesar, and this status was confirmed by Mark Antony, but, after the victory of Caesar’s heir, Octavian (subsequently the emperor Augustus), over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 bce, it became a Roman possession again. Cyprus was originally administered as part of the “imperial” province of Syria but became a separate “senatorial” province in 22 bce. Its governors resumed the old republican title of proconsul, although there is evidence that Augustus did influence the Senate’s choice. For the next 600 years, Cyprus enjoyed peace, disturbed only by occasional earthquakes and epidemics and by a Jewish uprising suppressed by a lieutenant of the future emperor Hadrian in 116 ce. Many large public buildings were erected, among them a gymnasium and theatre at Salamis, a theatre at Kourion, and the governor’s palace at Paphos.
Early Christianity
One of the most important events in the Roman period was the introduction of Christianity to Cyprus. The Apostle Paul, accompanied by Barnabas (later St. Barnabas), a native of the Cypriot Jewish community, preached there about 45 ce and converted the proconsul, Sergius Paulus. By the time of Constantine I the Great, Christians had become numerous on the island and may have constituted a majority of the population.