Climate and plant and animal life

The average temperature in January is about 31 °F (0 °C) and in June about 72 °F (22 °C), but recorded temperature extremes range from −15 to 106 °F (−26 to 41°C). Because of New York’s moderate climate, the harbour rarely freezes. The annual precipitation is 44 inches (1,120 mm).

The city’s flora and fauna are testimony to the rapid changes in the ecosystem imposed by urban settlement. In areas that once were hunting and fishing paradises for several bands of Native Americans, the most prevalent animals today are the cockroach and the Norway rat, both introduced to the city via trade with Europe. A wide variety of animal species are still found within the city, including 80 species of fish, scores of birds from the peregrine falcon to the pigeon, and such mammals as the raccoon and the occasional urban coyote. Wildlife refuges at Jamaica Bay and in Clove Lakes (Staten Island) and Alley Pond (Queens) parks provide sanctuaries for many species, allowing them to survive even within an unfavourable city environment. Vegetation has sufficient precipitation but has been reduced and destroyed with the advance of urban sprawl. The dominant characteristics of contemporary city plants are their ability to thrive despite acid rain and air that contains large components of ozone, vehicle emissions, and industrial by-products. However, the city’s two botanical gardens, one in the Bronx and the other in Brooklyn, are highly regarded throughout the country, and zoos in every borough enchant visitors of all ages.

The city layout

The city’s ancient bedrock provides the immovable foundation for hundreds of modern skyscrapers. New York has more of these awesome structures than any other world city. Architects may argue about the origin of the modern skyscraper, but most agree that Manhattan was where structures with steel skeletons were combined with the elevator to create a genre of buildings where great height could be reached practicably; the very word was coined in the 1880s to describe this New York phenomenon.

The earliest pathways for moving around Manhattan Island followed animal and Native American trails across difficult terrain; Broadway still follows one of these routes, which extended northward through the island. City planning was foreign to burghers in the 17th century, and roads were haphazardly authorized; only a few important ones to outlying agricultural communities were maintained, and it was not until 1798 that the city appointed a commissioner of streets. Colonial nonchalance is still visible in the meandering streets of Lower Manhattan. The optimistic spirit of the town is apparent in the street plan adopted in 1811, a grid of blocks, avenues, streets, and lots extending to the northern reaches of the island. City Hall, located now as then in Manhattan, was at that time so far removed from the centre of activity that its northern facade was left unfinished, since few could imagine it would ever be seen. Although often modified in specific cases, the rectilinear patterns imposed upon Manhattan in its infancy have determined its developmental patterns, and other boroughs adopted the system after the creation of Greater New York in 1898. The building of Central Park interrupted the grid, and road construction there pioneered concepts of limited-access and transverse-running roadways. In the 20th century, parkways were incorporated into the traffic patterns of all boroughs, as Eastern and Ocean parkways in Brooklyn, Riverside Drive (Manhattan), the Grand Concourse (the Bronx), and Queens Boulevard attest. Regardless of all its efforts, the modern city is infamous for the volume of traffic that clogs its well-laid-out street system.