The Madeira Islands
The Madeira archipelago includes eight volcanic islands in the Atlantic, 600 miles (1,000 km) southwest of the mainland. Only two of these, Madeira and Porto Santo, are inhabited. Madeira forms an asymmetrical mountainous hump in midocean, rising to 6,109 feet (1,862 metres) in the interior, falling more steeply in the north. Thick layers of basalt alternating with beds of ash and scoriae create a stepped relief that has been deeply dissected into gorges and canyons. The cratorial Curral das Freiras is about 2,265 feet (690 metres) deep. Paul da Serra is a bleak high-level plateau. The eastern tip of Madeira, like the uninhabited Desertas Islands, is sandy. The island of Porto Santo is low-lying and flat.
The Azores
Nine islands constitute the Azores, which extend in three groups over 400 miles (650 km) in the mid-Atlantic. The easternmost island, Santa Maria, lies 875 miles (1,408 km) from the Portuguese mainland; the westernmost, Flores, is about 1,230 miles (1,980 km) from Cape Race, Newfoundland, Canada. The islands are volcanic, occasionally active. Their varied scenery includes crater lakes, plateaus at various elevations, mountainous massifs, flat-bottomed valleys, and rugged coastlines. At 7,713 feet (2,351 metres) the Ponta do Pico volcano on Pico Island is the highest point in metropolitan Portugal.
Drainage
All of Portugal’s main rivers flow from Spain over the edge of the Meseta in a series of defiles (narrow gorges), and their usefulness, either for navigation or as routeways for roads and railways, is thus limited. The Douro, which extends some 200 miles (300 km) in the country, has been made navigable from near Porto to the Spanish frontier. In its upper reaches, the Douro riverbed drops 16 feet (5 metres) per mile in gorges 90 to 160 feet (30 to 50 metres) deep, a navigability problem resolved by locks built into five dams, including one that is 115 feet (35 metres) high. The longest river wholly in the country is the 137-mile (220-km) Mondego River, which rises in the Estrela Mountains. Other mainly Portuguese rivers include the Vouga, Sado, and Zêzere (a tributary of the Tagus). Like the Mondego, all are navigable for short distances. Rich silt land (campo) in the lower Tagus valley is the result of regular flooding, which is especially severe when strong southerly gales drive high seas up the estuary. The Guadiana, which flows south into the Gulf of Cádiz, forms part of the frontier with Spain, as does the Minho in the north.
Portugal has more than 500 miles (800 km) of coastline, four-fifths of which faces westward. Except at the mouths of the larger rivers, there are few major indentations or natural harbours; the most important are those of Lisbon, on the Tagus, and Setúbal, on the Sado. The entrance to the Tagus is a long, narrow deepwater channel opening out into a broad expanse of inland water. Other harbours depend on the protection of headlands (e.g., the artificial harbours of Leixões and Sines).
Soils
Most of Portugal’s soils are arid, acidic, and sandy, though in the north the soil often is rocky. Except for parts of northern Portugal that receive significant precipitation and along the country’s primary rivers, which deposit fertile alluvium, the soils are not suitable for intensive agricultural production. In the central and southern parts of the country, the soils are generally poor and incapable of significant agricultural production without extensive irrigation schemes.