Local government

For administrative purposes, mainland Tanzania is divided into regions. Each region is administered by a commissioner who is appointed by the central government. At district, division, and ward levels, there are popularly elected councils with appointed executive officers.

Justice

Tanzania’s judiciary is appointed by the president in consultation with the chief justice. A network of primary and district courts has been established throughout the country; right of appeal for the district courts is to the high court. English, Islamic, and customary laws have been absorbed into the legal system. In Zanzibar the highest judicial authority is the Supreme Council. Muslim courts deal with marriage, divorce, and inheritance.

Political process

By law Tanzania was a one-party state until 1992, when the constitution was amended to establish a multiparty political process. In 1977 the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), which had led the colony to independence, and the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) of Zanzibar, which had taken power after a coup in 1964, merged to form the Revolutionary Party (Chama cha Mapinduzi; CCM), and a new constitution was adopted the same year. Prior to the 1992 amendment, the CCM dominated all aspects of political life, and there was no clear separation of party and government personnel at regional and district levels. In 1995 Tanzania conducted its first multiparty general elections in more than 30 years for the office of president and for members of the parliament. Although more than a dozen opposition political movements were officially registered and participated in the elections, the CCM continued to control the Union government; its involvement in local government and other local affairs, however, began to wane, particularly its administration of the 10-cell neighbourhood watch program (with each cell varying in size from single-family homes to large apartment buildings). Individuals are eligible to vote at 18 years of age, and suffrage is universal.

The attainment of independence brought with it significant changes of attitudes toward women. TANU—and later the Tanzanian government—was concerned with human welfare and an improved status for all age groups and both sexes, as expressed in its policies guaranteeing equal rights and educational opportunities. Women were encouraged to participate in political activities, and as a result, several cabinet members are women, while others hold senior positions in government and the private sector. Women who played prominent roles in early nationalist activities include Bibi Titi Mohamed and Lucy Lameck.

Health and welfare

National and local governments support a network of village dispensaries and rural health centres; hospitals are located in the urban areas. Private doctors and religious organizations provide medical facilities as well.

The emphasis of national health policy has been on preventive medicine, including better nutrition, maternal and child health, environmental sanitation, and prevention and control of communicable diseases—especially HIV/AIDS, which in Tanzania was first reported in 1983 and became a serious problem in the 1990s. Although HIV/AIDS is more prevalent in major cities and towns, it has spread to villages and rural areas, especially those close to cities or on connecting roads and in border towns. In response, the Tanzanian government has instituted aggressive health campaigns to educate the public, distribute or encourage the use of condoms, safeguard blood supplies, and discourage risky sexual activity; these factors have likely contributed to the decline of the HIV prevalence rate in the 2000s.

Apart from HIV/AIDS, the main communicable diseases are poliomyelitis, leprosy, tuberculosis, dysentery, and enteric fevers. Other health concerns include environmental diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, schistosomiasis, and onchocerciasis (river blindness). Inadequate nutrition, particularly of children, is a major concern. Improvements in health and reduction of mortality rates have resulted from the provision of medical care to the rural population and from an inoculation program for children.

Education

The government-supported education system has three levels: primary (seven years), secondary (four to six years), and university, as well as vocational training schools. During the mid-1970s, universal primary education was made mandatory, which resulted in a vast increase in primary-school children. Popular pressure for the expansion of secondary schools has outstripped the availability of government finance. As a result, private secondary schools sponsored by religious institutions and, most notably, by parents themselves have expanded in number. Universities in Tanzania include the University of Dar es Salaam (1961), formerly part of the University of East Africa, Sokoine University of Agriculture (1984), and Zanzibar University (1998). Extensive adult education has focused on eradicating illiteracy, and, as a result, more than two-thirds of the adult population is literate—above the average for African countries but below the world average.

Cultural milieu

Olduvai Gorge, in the Great Rift Valley, is the site of the discovery of some of the earliest known remains of human ancestry, dating back 1.75 million years. The ancient in-migration of Cushitic, Nilotic, and Bantu peoples, displacing the native San-type population, resulted in a complex agglomeration of communities practicing complementary forms of pastoral and agricultural livelihoods. Portuguese, Arab, Indian, German, and British traders and colonists later added to the mosaic. Today Tanzania’s multiethnic and multiracial population practices a variety of traditions and customs that form a rich cultural heritage.

A number of unique features located throughout the country have been recognized as UNESCO World Heritage sites for their cultural and natural value; among these are the rock-painting sites at Kondoa, the ruins of the ancient ports of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, and Stone Town in Zanzibar.

Daily life and social customs

The role of kin is central to Tanzanian social and recreational life. Visiting kin on joyous and sorrowful family occasions is given high priority despite the inconvenience caused by a relatively undeveloped transport system. Educated members of the extended family are frequently held responsible for the education and welfare of younger siblings.