The Ayutthayan period, 1351–1767

Whereas Sukhothai was an independent kingdom for only about 200 years, its successor, Ayutthaya—situated in the rich rice plains of the Chao Phraya River basin, about 55 miles (90 km) north of present-day Bangkok—lasted more than 400 years. During the Ayutthayan period the Tai consolidated their position as the leading power in what is now central and north-central Thailand, as well as throughout much of its southern peninsular region. Since many of Ayutthaya’s neighbours called the country “Siam” or a name similar to it, the Tai of Ayutthaya came to be known as the Siamese.

Ayutthaya at first was only a small city-kingdom on the northwestern edge of the powerful Khmer empire. Within less than a century, however, Tai kings succeeded in pushing back the Khmer, and in 1431 they sacked their great capital of Angkor. Wars against neighbouring powers continued throughout the Ayutthayan period. In 1438 a greatly weakened Sukhothai was made a province of Ayutthaya. Lan Na, however, remained free of Ayutthayan control, although it was later brought under Burman influence.

When the Siamese conquered Angkor, they brought many Khmer captives back to Ayutthaya with them, some of whom had been officials or craftsmen at the Khmer royal court. From them Ayutthaya’s rulers adopted many of the Hindu ideas and practices that had been followed by the Khmer, including the concept of the ruler as god-king (devaraja). The king acquired power to determine the life and death of all his people. None but members of the royal family might gaze upon his face. He could be addressed only in a special language used exclusively for royalty, while those speaking to the king referred to themselves as “the dust beneath your majesty’s feet.”

The power of the ruler was enhanced not only through symbolic and ideological concepts drawn from Khmer-Hindu beliefs about the god-king but also through the centralization of political power. Trailok (reigned 1448–88) created a state in which the ruler stood at the centre of a series of concentric circles. As in the müang system, the outer circles were governed by hereditary lords, or chao. The inner circles, however, were administered by officeholders appointed by the king; to a limited degree these operated on bureaucratic rather than hereditary lines.

The kings of Ayutthaya also issued formal codes of civil and criminal law based on the ancient Indian body of jurisprudence called the Dharma-shastra. At the same time, a formal and highly complex hierarchical system assigned to each social status a specified number of units (called sakdi na) that determined the rank within society of the person occupying the status. At the bottom of the scale, a slave was worth 5 units, freemen were ranked at 25 and above, and the heir apparent to the throne was assigned no fewer than 100,000 units.

In Ayutthayan times the mass of the people, whether freemen or slaves, worked in the fields. Slaves included war captives and those held in bondage to pay off debts. Freemen were obliged to work for six months each year for the local representatives of the king, to pay taxes, and to provide military service as required. An intricate patronage system extended throughout society whereby clients provided their patrons with services in return for their protection. Ayutthaya was an underpopulated society, and the constant need for manpower and its scarcity helped protect clients from excessive demands by patrons; if the demands of a patron became too burdensome, a freeman could, as a last resort, move and take up new land.

Theravada Buddhism took deep root throughout Siam during Ayutthayan times, alongside the Brahmanism that already characterized court ritual and the earlier religious practices that pervaded all levels of society. The Buddhist monastic establishment (sangha) played an important role in society, forming a focal point for village life, providing young males with an education, and offering those who elected to remain in the sangha a channel for upward social mobility.

Ayutthaya in the 17th century, according to European visitors, was one of the wealthiest and most cosmopolitan cities in the world. Although it lay inland, it was easily accessible to oceangoing vessels traveling up the Chao Phraya River, and it became a thriving international trade emporium. It was during this period that European traders and travelers started coming to Siam. The Portuguese reached Siam as early as 1511, following their conquest of the sultanate of Malacca (Melaka) on the Malay Peninsula; they were followed in the 17th century by Dutch, English, Spanish, and French traders and missionaries. Ayutthayan kings permitted Chinese, Indian, Persian, and European traders to establish settlements, employed Japanese warriors, and allowed Western missionaries to preach within Ayutthayan domains. In addition to engaging in extensive trade with China, Southeast Asia, and India, the rulers of Ayutthaya also sent triennial tribute missions to the Chinese imperial court, established Buddhist missions in Sri Lanka, and sent emissaries abroad as far afield as Europe. King Narai (reigned 1656–88) initiated a series of diplomatic exchanges between Ayutthaya and the French court at Versailles and even appointed a Greek adventurer, Constantine Phaulkon, as his chief minister. Eventually, however, the Europeans became overly zealous in their efforts to convert Buddhist Siamese to Christianity. In 1688 the Siamese expelled the French from Ayutthaya and all but closed their doors to the West for the next 150 years.

The primary threat to Ayutthayan sovereignty came not from Europe, however, but from Burmese kingdoms. In 1569 a force from the Burman state of Toungoo overran Ayutthaya and devastated the countryside for miles around. Ayutthaya under Naresuan (reigned 1590–1605) recovered its independence. Conflict with the Burmese kingdom persisted, however, and in the mid-18th century Burman armies once again captured Ayutthaya. This time the city did not recover. Following the sacking of the city in 1767, the king and members of the royal family, along with thousands of captives, were deported to the Burmese kingdom. All Ayutthayan records were burned and its works of art destroyed.