Adaptations in mammals

At some early stage during the evolution of viviparous mammals, eggs came to be retained in the oviducts of the mother. The embryo then was provided with nourishment from fluids in the oviduct; the yolk, which became redundant, gradually ceased to be provided, and the eggs became oligolecithal. The eggshell, present in reptiles, was no longer needed and eventually disappeared, as did the white of the egg. The chorion, however, remained as the most external coat of the developing embryo through which nourishment reaches the embryo. It acquired the ability to adhere closely to the walls of the uterus (which was what that part of the oviduct holding the embryo had become) and became the so-called trophoblast. The blood-vessel network of the underlying allantois conveys nutrients that diffuse through the trophoblast to the body of the embryo proper. These modifications gave rise to a new organ, the placenta, formed from tissues of both the mother and the embryo: the uterine wall with its blood vessels provided by the mother; the trophoblast and allantois—and in some mammals also the yolk sac—with their blood vessels provided by the embryo.

The overall development of placental mammals as a result of these changes is profoundly different from that of their ancestors, the reptiles, and proceeds in the following way: the tiny yolkless egg is fertilized in the upper portion of the oviduct by sperm received from the male in the process of coupling (coitus); cleavage starts as the egg is propelled slowly down the oviduct by action of cilia in the oviduct lining. At the end of cleavage a solid ball of cells called a morula is produced. The surface cells of the morula become the trophoblast and the inner cell mass gives rise to the embryo (the formative cells) and also its yolk sac, amnion, and allantois. A cavity appears within the morula, converting it into a hollow embryo, called the blastocyst. This cavity resembles the blastocoel but, in fact, is analogous to the yolk sac of meroblastic eggs, except that there is no yolk and the cavity is filled with fluid. At the blastocyst stage, the embryo enters the uterus and attaches itself to the uterine wall. This attachment, or implantation, a crucial step in the development of a mammal, is attained through the action of the trophoblast, which forms extensions, known as villi, that penetrate the uterine wall. In higher placental mammals, the lining of the uterine wall and, in varying degrees, the underlying tissues as well are partially destroyed, resulting in a closer relationship between the blood supplies of the mother and the embryo. Indeed, in man and in some rodents, the blastocyst sinks completely into the uterine wall and becomes surrounded by uterine tissue.

While implantation takes place, the formative cells arrange themselves in the form of a disk under the trophoblast. In the disk, the germinal layers develop much as in birds, with the formation of a primitive streak and migration of the chordamesoderm into a deeper layer. A layer of endoderm is formed adjoining the cavity of the blastocyst, and an amniotic cavity develops, enclosing the embryo; in lower placental mammals, the allantois also develops. The embryo proper, lying in the amniotic cavity, is connected to the extra-embryonic parts by the umbilical cord. The umbilical cord lengthens greatly during later development. In higher mammals, the cavity of the allantois is reduced, but the allantoic blood vessels become well developed and extend through the umbilical cord, connecting the embryo to the placenta. The blood that circulates in the placenta brings oxygen and nutrients from the maternal blood to the embryo and carries away carbon dioxide and other waste products from the embryo to the maternal blood for disposal by the maternal body.

Although tissues of maternal and embryonic origin are closely apposed in the placenta, there is little actual mingling of the tissues. Despite an occasional penetration of an embryo cell into the mother and vice versa, there is a placental barrier between the two tissues. The blood circulation of the mother is at all times completely separated from that of the embryo and its extra-embryonic parts. The placental barrier, however, does allow molecules of various substances to pass through; such differential permeability is indeed necessary if the embryo is to obtain nourishment. The permeability of the placental barrier differs in different animals; thus antibodies, which are protein molecules, may penetrate the placental barrier in man but not in cattle.

The maintenance of the fetus—as the more advanced embryo of a mammal is called—in the uterus is under hormonal control. In the initial stages of pregnancy, the continued existence of the embryo in the uterus depends on the hormone progesterone, which is secreted by the corpora lutea, “yellow bodies,” that develop in the ovary after an egg has been released.

At birth the fetal parts of the placenta separate from the maternal parts. Contraction of the uterine wall first releases the fetus from the uterus; the fetal parts of the placenta (the afterbirth) follow. In certain cases of intimate connection between fetal and maternal tissues, the maternal tissues are torn, and birth is accompanied by profuse bleeding.

Differentiation of the germinal layers

The type of organ rudiment produced depends on the organization of the body in any particular group in the animal kingdom. In the vertebrates the earliest subdivision within a germinal layer is the segregation within the chordamesodermal mantle of the rudiment of the notochord from the rest of the mesoderm. During gastrulation the material of the notochord comes to lie middorsally in the roof of the archenteron. It separates by longitudinal crevices from the chordamesodermal mantle lying to the left and right. The material of the notochord then rounds off and becomes a rod-shaped strand of cells immediately under the dorsal ectoderm, stretching from the blastopore toward the anterior end of the embryo, to the midbrain level. In front of the tip of the notochord, there remains a thin sheet of prechordal mesoderm.

The mesodermal layer adjoining the notochord becomes thickened and, by transverse crevices, subdivided into sections called somites. The somites, which later give rise to the segmented body muscles and the vertebral column, are the basis of the segmented organization typical of vertebrates (seen especially in the lower fishlike forms but also in the embryos of higher vertebrates). The lateral and ventral mesoderm, which remains unsegmented, is called the lateral plate. The somites remain connected to the lateral plate by stalks of somites that play a particular role in the development of the excretory (nephric) system in vertebrates; for this reason they are called nephrotomes. Rather early the mesodermal mantle splits into two layers, the outer parietal (somatic) layer and the inner visceral (splanchnic) layer, separated by a narrow cavity that will expand later to form the coelomic, or secondary, body cavity. The coelomic cavity extends initially through the nephrotomes into the somites; in the somites it is eventually obliterated. Endoderm completely surrounds the lumen of the archenteron (when present) and produces the cavity of the alimentary canal. If no archenteric cavity is formed during gastrulation, the cavity of the alimentary canal is formed by the separation of cells in the middle of the mass of endoderm (as in bony fishes) or by folding of the sheet of endoderm. The endodermal gut sooner or later acquires an extended anterior part called the foregut and a narrower and more elongated posterior part, the hindgut. Characteristic of chordates is the development of the nervous system from a part of ectoderm lying originally on the dorsal side of the embryo, above the notochord and the somites. This part of the ectodermal layer thickens and becomes the neural plate, whose edges rise as neural folds that converge toward the midline, fuse together, and form the neural tube. In vertebrates the neural tube lies immediately above the notochord and extends beyond its anterior tip. The neural tube is the rudiment of the brain and spinal cord; its lumen gives rise to the cavities, or ventricles, of the brain and to the central canal of the spinal cord. The remainder of the ectoderm closes over the neural tube and becomes, in the main, the covering layer (epithelium) of the animal’s skin (epidermis). As the neural tube detaches itself from the overlying ectoderm, groups of cells pinch off and form the neural crest, which plays an important role in the development of, among other things, the segmental nerves of the brain and spinal cord.

In developing the primary organ rudiments mentioned above, the embryo acquires a definite organization clearly recognizable as that of a chordate animal. Similar processes, which occur in the development of other animals, establish the basic organization of an annelid, a mollusk, or an arthropod.