audiology

audiology, the study, assessment, prevention, and treatment of disorders of hearing and balance. Clinical audiology is concerned primarily with the assessment of the function of the human ear, which affects hearing sensitivity and balance. The characterization of specific losses in hearing or balance facilitates the diagnosis of impairments and enables the development of effective treatment or management plans.

Hearing sensitivity

The human ear has an extremely wide dynamic range. The lower limit of hearing, where sound is just detectable, is referred to as the threshold of hearing (also known as absolute threshold, or absolute sensitivity). The upper limit of hearing, where sound begins to become uncomfortably loud, is referred to as the threshold of discomfort (or uncomfortable loudness level). In quantitative terms, the difference in level between those two extremes is more than six orders of magnitude. The human ear can hear single frequencies of vibration from around 20 to 20,000 hertz (Hz), although reductions occur during the natural aging process, particularly in the upper limit of the range.

The general relationship between the dynamic range of hearing and frequency has been well understood for many years. Studies measuring the minimum audible level of hearing have been made with stimuli presented to each ear separately or both ears together (usually via an earphone and loudspeaker, respectively). The results from the two methods are similar, but not identical, and show human hearing to be generally most sensitive between 500 and 10,000 Hz. The typical values obtained in a group of young healthy individuals, at individual frequencies, are used as the baseline reference level to which listeners with a suspected hearing impairment can be compared.

Pure-tone audiometry

The most widely used assessment procedure in clinical audiology is known as pure-tone audiometry. The listener’s hearing threshold level (hearing level), in decibels (dB), is plotted on a chart known as a pure-tone audiogram, with hearing level plotted on the ordinate (vertical axis) as a function of signal frequency on the abscissa (horizontal axis). The conventional clinical audiogram plots hearing level with low dB values (normal hearing) at the top of the chart and raised levels (reduced hearing) closer to the abscissa. Therefore, raised hearing levels, representing decreased hearing, are plotted lower on the pure-tone audiogram chart.

The reference baseline is called audiometric zero and represents the 0 dB hearing level line on the audiogram chart. If, for example, a listener’s hearing threshold level for a particular signal is 60 dB, then the listener’s hearing threshold is 60 dB higher than the median value obtained from a group of normal healthy young persons. However, not every healthy young adult has a hearing threshold level that falls on the 0 dB line; the range of normal hearing is generally taken to be ±20 dB of the zero line.

For clinical purposes, the hearing threshold is usually measured for single frequency tones at discrete frequencies from 500 Hz to 8,000 Hz, in octave or half-octave intervals, and reported in step sizes of 5 dB. The signals are selected and presented to the listener by using a classical measurement method known as the method of limits. A series of signals are presented in an ascending or descending run (from loud to quiet, or vice versa), and the task for the listener is to respond every time he or she detects a signal. As with any psychophysical measurement, there is a level above which the pure tone is always heard and a lower level where the tone is never heard. The threshold of hearing is taken as the lowest level at which the signal is detected at least 50 percent of the time. Because a host of extrinsic and intrinsic factors can influence the measurements (e.g., ambient noise level and duration of the test signal, respectively), clearly defined procedures have been developed for clinical testing.

Although the measurement of hearing thresholds from each ear separately appears a relatively straightforward procedure, sound may cross from one side of the head to the other. For example, if a listener has poor hearing in the ear under test, the signal may be sufficiently intense that it may cross the skull and be detected by the opposite ear that has better hearing. In those circumstances, a masking noise is presented to the nontest ear to prevent cross-hearing of the test signal. Standard procedures have been developed for when and how to use masking. If masking is insufficient, the test signal may continue to be detected by the nontest ear; if too much masking is used, cross-masking may occur, artificially raising the hearing threshold in the test ear.

The degree of hearing loss usually varies with frequency. However, impairment usually is summarized as mild, moderate, severe, or profound, on the basis of an average of the hearing threshold levels. The ability to hear speech is related to the degree of impairment. Slight hearing impairment (26–40 dB hearing level) can cause some difficulty in hearing speech, especially in noisy situations. Moderate hearing impairment (41–60 dB hearing level) can cause difficulty in hearing speech without a hearing aid. Conversational speech is not audible in cases of severe (61–80 dB hearing level) or profound (81 dB hearing level or greater) hearing impairment.

Some of those listeners, if they decide that they would like to hear speech, may need a special type of hearing aid known as a cochlear implant. The proportion of speech that is audible and usable for a listener, with or without a hearing aid, can be quantified by using a procedure known as the Speech Intelligibility Index. At relatively high presentation levels, the test signal sometimes can be perceived as a vibration, especially for low-frequency stimuli. In some instances, it may be difficult to determine if a threshold measurement is an auditory or a vibrotactile perception.